Chapter 2

Footnotes

Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals: Television and Politics in the Soviet Union (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), in the series Communication and Society, ed. by George Gerbner and Marsha Seifert.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 123.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 118-119.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 150.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 8-9, 22-23.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 109, 118.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 119-120, 145.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 148.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 29.
911 is a popular television program on Finnish television, but to incorporate the techniques of a docudrama into Finnish television news reports would definitely alienate most viewers.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 26.
From a July, 1994 Helsingin Sanomat report.
Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals, 29.
Howard Frederick, "Content Analysis in Marxist Communication Science," in Sari Thomas, ed., Studies in Communicaton, Vol. 2 (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1984), 145-154. Frederick quotes Bernard Berelson, "Content Analysis in Communication Research," Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952.
CNN Vs. the Networks: Is More News Better News? A Content Analysis of the Cable News Network and the Three Broadcast Networks, (Washington, D.C.: The Media Institute), xiii.
CNN Vs. the Networks, 10-12.
CNN Vs. the Networks, xvi.
This particular assumption, of course, was proved wrong during the Gulf War, and will be discussed in later chapters.
These topics will also receive considerable attention in this study.
M. A. K. Halliday, A. McIntosh and P. Strevens, The Lingusitic Sciences and Language Teaching (London: Longmans, 1964), 87.
One simple test would be to read a passage from the encyclopedia out loud and compare the intonation and grammar to a recent conversaton with a friend.
Roger Fowler, Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press (London: Routledge, 1991), 62.
Roger Fowler, Language in the News, 61-62.
Fernando Poyatos, Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Nonverbal Communication (Toronto: Hogrefe, 1988).
Ronald Primeau, The Rhetoric of Television (New York and London: Longman, 1979), 142.
Roger Fowler, Language in the News, 62.
Roger Fowler, Language in the News, 62.
Roger Fowler, Language in the News, 64
One of the best (and, cross-culturally for a Finn, the most inane) examples of this is "Happy Talk." Originated at WLS in Chicago in 1968, "Happy Talk" is a term used to describe the gossipy banter between news anchors, weathermen and sportscasters. "Happy Talk" was at first a trademark of ABC News but has now become a standard feature of practically all commercial newscasts on American television and is rapidly spreading to other countries as well. Happy Talk is derived from the "bantering remarks made among anchormen, reporters, weathermen, and sportscasters during transitions from topic to topic." Happy Talk, however, is broader in scope in that it diverts the audience from "abstract," "disturbing," "vital" topics which may weigh the newscast down to make it too complicated or dull. See Ron Powers, The Newscasters: The News Business as Show Business (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977), 35.
See Ron Powers, The Newscasters, 35 and Roger Fowler, Language in the News, 62.
Hallin writes: "Television, it is said, is personal: the news is brought to us not by anonymous writers but by individuals selected in no small part for a persona that combines authority with likability. It is well known that polls once showed Walter Cronkite to be the most "trusted" man in America. Television is also visual, people may feel that they are "seeing it for themselves" on television. ...unlike most newspaper reports, television stories tend to be tightly organized around a particular "story line" or interpretation.
Hallin, Daniel C. , "We Keep America on Top of the World," in Gitlin, Todd, ed., Watching Television (New York: Pantheon Book, 1987) 26-27.
Ronald Primeau, The Rhetoric of Television, 142-143.
Doug Newsom and James Wollert, Media Writing: News for the Mass Media (California: Wadsworth, 1985), 12-13.
Doug Newsom and James Wollert, Media Writing: News for the Mass Media, 106-107.
The strict time limits imposed on commercial television news have led politicians to criticize the media for offering them only limited "sound bites" for explaining their platforms. Crawford, Frederick and Gerbner, in their paper, "Commercials in the Classroom," attribute the growing problem that audiences do not understand issues to the existence of the sound bite and photo op. "Politicians already blame the media for demanding that every issue be reduced to a sound bite; the media, in turn, claim that sound bites are what the public demands, because the public's attention span has dwindled so." From PeaceNet, media.issues conference.
Doug Newsom and James Wollert, Media Writing: News for the Mass Media, 108.
Fred Friendly is a controversial figure in American broadcasting. He was best known as Edward R. Murrow's hardnosed sidekick. He moved up to the position of Director of CBS News, working with Walter Cronkite during the 1960s, and resigned over CBS's reluctance to be critical enough of U.S. policy in Vietnam.
See also Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), ix-xi.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, ix-xi.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 39.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 72.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 73.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 74.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 74.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 75.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 95.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 103.
BEdward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 103-104.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 103.
Edward Bliss, Jr. and John M. Patterson, Writing News for Broadcast, 2.

...dass Stil nicht in Bezug auf nur eine Sprachebene (wie die der Grammatik oder der des Vokabulars) erklaert werden kann, sondern dass Stil aus einem Wechselspiel der Sprachorganisation auf vershiedenen Ebenen resultiert...

Compare: Hartmut Schroeder, Jerry Schuchalter, Brett Dellinger, Lacunaology: Studies in Intercultural Communication. (Vaasa: Vaasan yliopiston julkaisuja, No. 196, 1995).

...ein Text hat nicht Stil, sondern ihm wird Stil zugesprochen; Stil entsteht erst im Rahmen und durch die Autor-Leser-Kommunikation...

Compare: Hartmut Schroeder, Jerry Schuchalter, Brett Dellinger, Lacunaology: Studies in Intercultural Communication. (Vaasa: Vaasan yliopiston julkaisuja, No. 196, 1995).
See ahead for a discussion of lacunae in cross-cultural communication.
Ruth Wodak, ed., Language Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (London: Benjamins Publishing Company, 1989), xv-xvi.