The Mongolian Hordes

                     Persona Ideas For The SCA Fighter
                                     by
                        Lord Martin aus Brandenburg



The Mongolian Hordes
Just saying it brings to mind barbarian horsemen galloping swiftly accross
rolling grassy plains, arrows and falcons filling the zephyr winds overhead
--Oh, and the movie Conan the Barbarian. Not Arnold himself, mind you, but
two other things from our favorite late-night, sword-and-sorcery,
I-need-another-tape-for-the-rental-special movie brings to mind the
Mongols: Conan's sidekick, Subedei the Archer ("...and THIEF!"), and the
Big Guy's famous quote when he was asked what was best in life:

"The greatest pleasure is to vanquish your enemies and chase them before
you, to rob them of their wealth and see those dear to them bathed in
tears, to ride their horses and clasp to your bosom their wives and
daughters."

The above quote wasn't from Conan, familiar as it seems. It was from
Temujin, m.k.a. Genghis Khan, and the Mongolian Hordes were not just
kumis-drinking, barbarian horse-archers, but one of the greatest hopes and
fears of Western Europe during the 13th century.

Feared, because a simple reconnaissance-in-force of fewer than 25,000 from
Genghis Khan's Western Horde conquered most of Georgia, Armenia, and the
Turco-Mongolian tribes in the area. Later, Batu Khan led the Golden Horde
to a firmer grip of Eastern Europe that lasted well over two hundred years
in Russia, alone. How different would the map of Europe be today, if Ogedei
Khan had not died, and Batu, Khan of the Golden Horde had continued his
westward push?

Hoped for, because Genghis Khan's descendants, Hulegu Khan and his
Christian son Mangku-Temur, led a powerful army against the Islamic nations
of the Holy Land and were often thought to be Prester John's Christian army
come to the aid of the beleaguered Western Crusaders. How different would
the map of the Middle East be today, if King Louis of France and Prince
Edward of England had been able to coordinate and unite with Hulegu, the
first Il-Khan of Persia?

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Quick Notes on the Mongol Horde
[Image] The Mongol warrior was an archer and a horseman of supreme skill,
and the Mongol Horde was a force of light and heavy calvary.
[Image] Each horde always had a unit or two of artillery and engineers. It
was not unknown for the Mongol army to deflect rivers into enemy cities,
use smoke screens and fire rocket barrages into enemy formations.
[Image] Chinese administrators and Persian surgeons were an integral part
of the advancing hordes.
[Image] Slaves were often impressed into service as decoy units, shock
troops, auxilliary infantry or simply barriers against oncoming troops.
[Image] The Mongols valued only horses and slaves. Other booty was often
used to buy spies.
[Image] The Mongols did not believe in religious persecution. Mongols were
or could be Nestorian Christians, Buddists, Muslim, Taoist or Shamanist
--if they proclaimed a religious affiliation at all. Most early Khans did
not.
[Image] IMHO, The Mongol Horde had the best discipline, organization, and
cavalry of its time.
[Image] The Mongols never took prisoners on the battlefield, or I should
say, never kept them. Soldiers that deserted the enemy were considered
untrustworthy and slain. Soldiers that surrendered were too much of a
threat to be left behind, and thus slain. Only those nations and peoples
who allied or were employed with the Mongols outright, or became their
vassal states, were pressed into the armies as auxilliaries.
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                 General History in Europe and Time Period

The Push West from the Steppes
At the beginning of the 13th century, Temujin of the Mongols, also known as
Genghis Khan, had retired from active politics after uniting the Mongol
tribes and conquering most of the Eastern Empires of Chin and Sung. When
his ambassadors and merchants to Khwarizm (most of modern-day Iran,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Southern Khazakstan and Northern India), had been
murdered for their possessions and trade goods, Genghis Khan declared a war
of retribution against Muhammad II, Shah of the largest Muslim Empire in
history. It was 1219 when Genghis Khan and the Mongol Hordes first rode
west to insure "that his empire should never be bounded by a kingdom strong
enough to threaten its security." He effectively destroyed every army and
nation that stood in his way.

Genghis Khan's mounted army never numbered more than 200,000 and was split
into four separate groups with their own artillery and engineers. The
Shah's army of 400,000 waited for him, and Mohammad II had the resources
and allies to raise another half million. Through organization, discipline,
the best calvary in the world and an extremely efficient intelligence
network, the Mongol Horde smashed through Kashgar, Khojend, and Shiraz, to
sack and plunder the great cities of Bukhara and Samarkand. Then, when the
Shah's son, Jalal-ad-Din, threatened to raise another army, Genghis Khan
sent his generals through Herat and Nishapur, Balkh, Kazvin and Hamadur
until his enemy Muhammad Shah fled literally friendless and shirtless to
the island of Abeskum, where he died of pleurisy in 1221. Jalal-ad-Din and
his best general, Timur Malik, barely escaped, and spent the rest of their
lives as fairly successful brigands throughout Asia Minor.

Jebe's European Vacation
In 1221, Jebe Noyan and Subedei Bahadur, Genghis Khan's great generals, led
a reconnaissance in force through eastern Europe with 20,000 calvary to
study the roads to the West. They destroyed both armies of King George IV
of Georgia, whose renowned 15,000 knights and 30,000 Cuman calvary of the
Georgian Royal Guards were preparing for the sixth crusade. Not bad, for a
reconnaissance.

In the winter of 1221, the Mongols sieged Tiflis, sacked Maragha and
Hamadan, and invested the citadel in Derbend until the trapped Shah
promised them guides and forage to cross over the Caucasus. Kotian, Khan of
the Cuman tribe, set a 50,000-horse Cuman, Bulgar, Khazar, and Alan army to
wait for them on the other side of the mountain pass. Jebe and Subedei
slaughtered the army after the Cuman contingent was bribed to desert, and
later caught up to and destroyed the Cumans, recapturing all their booty,
and more.

Subedei Bahadur secured a source of intelligence on the Western Kingdoms
for a trade monopoly to Venice. Jebe Noyan made a treaty with Polskinia,
chief of the Brodniki, and reinforced his Mongols with an additional 5,000
Brodniki calvary. All the while, the Mongol's Mandarin administrators made
detailed maps and census' of Hungary, Poland, Silesia, Bohemia and Russia,
and set up a spy network in the eastern cities for their later invasion
plans.

The Russians Strike Back
Meanwhile, Kotian Khan had allied with the other Russian Powers: Prince
Mstislav the Daring, of Galicia, Prince Daniel of Volynia, Prince Oleg of
Kursk, Grand Duke Yuri of Suzdal, and the other Mstislavs, the Princes of
Kiev and Chernigov. This combined force chased the Mongols east above the
Sea of Azov for nine days until the Horde stood for battle.

Return of the Jebe
On May 31st, 1223, the Mongols stood for battle against the pursuing
Russian army led by Kotian Khan. The Horde proceeded to smash, in order,
the Galicians, the Cumans, the army of Kursk and Volynia, and finally the
army of Chernigov. The 10,000 strong army of Kiev arrived late, and held
off the Mongol Horde for three days until it, too, suffered the same fate.
Jebe and Subedei finally rode east to meet up with Jochi and 10,000
reinforcements west of the Volga, and then defeated the Kama Bulgars,
Saxins and Kanglis before heading home.

Before Genghis Khan died in 1227, he had returned to the east and conquered
the last of the Chin and the Tanguts, and ordered an expedition to do the
same to the Sung. His empire stretched from the Sea of Japan to the River
Dnieper above the Black Sea. His descendants carried on his war of conquest
until 1290, when the Khan of the Golden Horde turned their armies against
those of the khans of Mongol Persia. Before that, however, his grandson
Batu Khan, who founded the Golden Horde in Sarai, carried on the invasion
of Europe.

Europe, Ho!
In 1236, Batu Khan, with Mangku, Budjek, and the old general Subedei,
marched across the Volga. The Kipchaks, Alans and Bulgars were conquered
and added to the Horde. A 120,000 strong Mongol army took Riazan in 1237
and laid waste to Isteslawetz and Pronsk. Batu Khan then beat an army
coming down from Suzdal, took Kolomna, and stormed Moscow. After the fall
of Vladimir, the Horde split and Batu Khan captured Dmitrov and Tver while
Subedei took Rostov, Yuriev, and Yaroslav. The Novgorodian cities of
Torzhok and Kozelsk fell before the end of winter. In 1240, Pereiaslav and
Chernigov were conquered. By December, Kiev, the political and religious
capitol of Russia, had fallen street by street and by the end of the year,
the Mongol borders were pushing at the Carpathian mountains. Three months
later, all of Hungary east of the Danube right up to the city walls of Pest
were under Mongol control.

At the same time, another Mongol force under Baidar and Kadan were invading
Poland. In February 1241, they passed through Lublin, burning it, Zawichost
and everything else flammable within twenty miles. Sandomir was sacked, and
a small Cistercian monastery was pillaged (sorry Timon).

Why? Baidar and Kadan's mission was to draw any Northern European army away
from Hungary, and lead them round the dell while Batu conquered on. Since
no such army had appeared yet, they split forces and Kadan attacked Mazovia
while Baidar headed for Cracow. Outside of Chmielnik, Baidar lured, then
destroyed, the forces of Boleslaw the Chaste in a descending rain of
arrows, and burned Cracow to the ground on March 24, 1241, an event still
commemorated there to this day. Their ruse was successful, and soon an army
was on its way to Liegnitz.

The Battle of Liegnitz
Henry of Silesia met the Mongols outside of Liegnitz with over 20,000 men,
including Miecislaw of Oppeln's force, a Moravian contingent under
Boleslaw, conscripts from Great Poland (including ministerialer originally
from Brandenburg and Magdeburg, such as myself!), and small numbers of
Templars and Hospitallers from France under Poppo von Osterna on April 9th.
Their army was lured into a charge, split in half by a smoke screen and
while one half was leveled by enveloping archers, the other was crushed
under the stampeding hooves and piercing lances of the Mongol heavy
calvary.

The Templar losses (are you reading this, Thomas Blackswan?) were 11
knights, 2 sergeants, and 500 men-at-arms. According to James Chambers in
The Devil's Horsemen, the Mongols counted the dead by cutting an ear off
each body. They sent nine large sacks to Batu in honor of their victory.
Their objective of keeping the northern European forces tied up and out of
Hungary were all too successful.

The Enemy of My Enemy
Other Mongol armies were also invading the Muslim world beyond Khwarizm and
Europe. Both Baghdad and the Ismaili (Order of the Assassins) sent
ambassadors to Western Europe and England, so threatened they were by the
Mongols. Western Europe was no better off, with the Pope Gregory IX and the
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II at each other's throats to the point where
neither could spare any military support elsewhere. In fact, the pope
ordered a crusade against the 'Tartars,' and Conrad, King of Germany took
up the cross on May 19th, 1241, but, when not joined by many others and
after skirmishing with the Mongols along the borders, the crusade fell
apart.

The Conquest of Hungary
Back in Hungary and without the threat of northern intervention, Batu
captured Hermannstadt, destroyed the Transylvanian army (sorry Brian!), and
met King Bela IV at Mohi. The Mongols surrounded the Hungarian army, hit
them with an artillery barrage of rockets, fire-bombs and grenades lobbed
by catapults. As the Mongols advanced and closed the noose, only the
Templars and Archbishop Hulogin's troops formed to receive, the rest ran
for a small gap in the Mongol line. The fleeing troops were massacred over
a thirty mile stretch and the Templars were buried first by concentrated
artillery fire and then Siban's heavy Mongol calvary. Only Bela and a few
loyal vassals on very fast horses escaped.

Pest fell shortly thereafter, and Buda was raided. Everything on their side
of the Danube was Mongol territory now. Gran, though valiantly defended by
Simeon the Spaniard, fell that winter --as did Buda. Stuhlweissenburg and
the monastery of St. Martin of Pammonia held out, however, thanks to
Italian mercenaries garrisoning the city (Antonio Falcone, was that you?).
The Mongols stopped their advance before Klosternuburg outside of Vienna
and outside of Udine, just north of Venice.

Mongol's European End-Game
Ogedei, Great Khan of the Mongols, died of alcohol poisoning and the
European invasion came to an end as the princes and khans returned east to
elect the next Great Khan. Batu set up his capitol out of Sarai, just north
of Astrakhan in Southern Russia, and became Batu Khan, leader of the Golden
Horde of Sarai.

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Anglo-Saxons were Mongols, Too!

An Englishman was captured riding with the Mongols, apparently an
ex-Templar who became employed by the Mongols in the Middle East as an
interpreter and soldier (one of those things that make you go "Hmmm!"). The
Mongols hired merchants, warriors and translators of all backgrounds
--mostly as spies, but as this soldier attests, some rode armed and ready
to support the yak banner by force.
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In The Khan's Secret Service
The Mongols were great believers in scouting out the enemy before any
campaign, and military intelligence was the sacred duty of every Mongol
merchant to report. Spies were always employed by the Hordes, and
information a currency always welcome. Important moments in Mongol
espionage:

   * In 1221, Subedei Bahadur negotiated a secret treaty between Venice and
     the Mongol Empire, securing a source of intelligence on the Western
     Kingdoms for a trade monopoly to Venice.
   * The Mongol's Mandarin administrators made detailed maps and census' of
     Hungary, Poland, Silesia, Bohemia and Russia, and set up a spy network
     in the eastern cities for their later invasion in 1236.
   * Bohemond, ruler of the Latin state of Antioch, signed a secret
     document with Mongol ambassadors in 1256 and became a vassal of
     Hulegu, Ilkhan of Iran, and the Mongolian Empire.

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                            The Mongol Crusades

St. Louis, Hero of the Seventh Crusade and King of France, had exchanged
ambassadors with the Mongol Empire, and had hoped to use them as allies
during his crusade in the Holy Land. In 1253, he urged Sartak, Batu Khan's
Christian son to invade Syria, and the Mongols did. The Mongol army came
down from Persia, first besieging the Ismaili in their mountain
strongholds. The force, including gunpowder weapons and siege engines from
China and 1,000 Chinese archers, advanced to staging areas in Turkestan and
Persia. Hulegu Khan led the force south in 1256, first destroying the last
of the Assassin strongholds, and then attacking Bagdad. Bagdad fell in
1258, its army and 80,000 people were killed --only the Christians were
spared. Next came Syria, and Mosul. Aleppo and Damascus became Mongol
cities by 1260. The Latin state of Antioch, by a secret document of
Bohemond's a vassal of Mongolia since 1256, was visited by the Mongol army
as it headed towards Damascus.

The Battle of Ain Jalut
The Mongols suffered their first great defeat at Ain Jalut, after falling
into the same trap they themselves laid for the western knights. Their
enemy rode forward, showered them with arrows and turned as if to flee.
When the Mongols caught up to their quarry, they were ambushed and shot to
pieces. They were defeated by the Mameluks of Egypt --the descendants of
the Turkish nomads driven from Turkey and southern Russia on Temujin's
first drive westward (Whoa -Karma!). Damascus fell to the Mameluks, then
Aleppo. After that, the Mongols returned to Persia, became primarily Muslim
and Buddhist, and never again raised the war banner in the Middle East or
Europe.

                       Organization, Titles and Ranks

                                   Titles

 Khan        Tribal Leader, King
             Royal Prince or the marshals of the Mongol army, usually of
 Orlok       three tumens or more. Orloks carried a paitze with a lion
             under the sun and moon. Princes carried a paitze with a
             falcon.
             Baron, military commander of a tumen or minghan, carried a
 Noyan       paitze of gold of twenty ounces or more. Noyans who led
             tumens carried a paitze with a tiger's head.
             Quartermaster officer. The chief yurtchi was also responsible
 Yurtchi     for reconnaissance, intelligence and the day-to-day
             administration of the ordu, or camp, and held a high rank in
             the army.
 Bahadur     Knight, literally means Hero.

                           Organization and Rank

 Tumen       10,000 man division, made up of ten minghans, led by a noyan
             appointed by the Khan.

 Minghan     1,000 man regiment, made up of ten jaguns, led by a noyan
             appointed by the Khan.

 Jagun       100 man squadron, made up of ten arbans. The arban leaders
             selected their own leader for the jagun.
             10 man unit and smallest unit in the Horde. The men in the
 Arban       arban selected their own leader. Each arban had two or three
             yurts for food distribution, supplied by a regular corps of
             provisioners.

 Mangudai    The Mongol force that feigned panic and flight to lead the
             enemy into an ambush.
             The Imperial Guard tumen that formed the khan's personal
             household. It was never disbanded and all commanders of
             minghans and tumens must first have served within the ranks
             of the kashik. Three minghans, the "Day Guard," "Night Guard"
 Kashik      and the "Quiver Bearers ," had different uniforms. The
             remaining seven minghans formed the "Old Elite Life Guard."
             Every life guard had the rank of bahadur, wore black armor
             and a black kalat with red facing. They rode black horses
             with red leather harness and saddles.

                               Miscellaneous

             The communication network of the Mongol Empire. Placed within
             an easy ride of one another, these horse outposts, much like
             the pony express outposts of the American West allowed the
 Cham        messengers of the armies to pass swiftly to their
             destinations. Riders of the cham could commandeer any horse
             and give the owner a writ to be redeemed at one of these
             stations for his old horse back, or his choice of horses if
             his was not available.
 Kalat       Mongolian tunic.
             Fermented mare's milk-- alcoholic drink of the Mongols. This
 Kumiz       was superseded by sake when the Mongolian empire conquered
             the Chins and the Sungs. Anyone who has sampled noth will
             understand perfectly!
 Nacarra     Mongolian kettle drum.
 Ordu        Camp.

 Paitze      Small tablet of rank worn about the neck, made of silver for
             jagun commanders and of gold for officers of higher rank.
             A Mongol military maneuver - the standard sweep. The outside
 Tulughma    wings move forward on either flank and enclose, as the heavy
             calvary center hits.
 Yurt        Tent, pavilion.

                        Names For Mongolian Personas
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Abaka
     Eldest son of Hulegu, was the second Il-Khan of Persia from 1265-1282.
Alghu
     Youngest son of Baidar, Son of Chagatai, was given the empire around
     Transoxiana and Kara Khitai by Arik-Boke (c. 1259)
Argun
     Son of Abaka, and fourth Il-Khan of Persia (1284-91).
Arik-Boke
     Youngest son of Tolui and khan of Karakorum, he vied with Kubilai for
     the supreme khanate after Mangku Khan's death in 1259.
Baidar
     Youngest son of Chagatai.
Batu
     Son of Jochi, the first Khan of the Golden Horde (d. 1256)
Berke
     Son of Jochi, the third Khan of the Golden Horde from 1257-1266.
Boal
     Son of Jochi.
Borte (F)
     Wife of Genghis Khan.
Budjek
     Prince of the Mongols, led an army south towards the lower Volga in
     1236.
Buri
     Son of Kara-Hulegu.
Chagatai
     Son of Genghis Khan.
Dede Korkut
     Literally translates as "Grandfather" Korkut, immortal character of
     the Tatar epics, The Book of Dede Korkut.
Ghazan
     Son of Argun.
Hamabek
     Led a 1,000 man rearguard to slow Prince Mstislav the Daring and his
     Galicians crossing the Dnieper. They died to the man.
Hulegu
     Son of Tolui, first Il-Khan of Persia (1256-65).
Jebe Noyan
     Great general of Genghis Khan and later, Batu Khan.
Jochi
     Son of Genghis Khan.
Kadan
     Son of Ogedei.
Kaidu
     Son of Kashin.
Kara-Hulegu
     Son of Mutugen.
Kashin
     Son of Ogedei.
Kilugen
     War Companion of Genghis Khan, was well known for his poetry. He was
     entrusted with the care of Borte, wife of Genghis Khan when the Khan
     died.
Kochu
     Son of Ogedei, co-led force sent to conquer the Sung Empire (c.1235).
Koten
     Son of Ogedei, co-led the force sent to conquer the Sung Empire
     (c.1235).
Kubilai (Kubla Khan)
     Son of Tolui, fifth Great Khan of the Mongols and founder of the Yuan
     Dynasty of China (1260-94).
Kuyuk
     Son of Ogedei, third Great Khan of the Mongols (1246-48).
Mangku
     Son of Tolui, fourth Great Khan of the Mongols (1251-59).
Mangku-Temur
     Youngest son of Hulegu. Another Manku-Temur, the son of Tokokan, was
     the fourth Khan of the Golden Horde (1267-80).
Mutugen
     Son of Chagatai.
Nogai
     Only son of Boal, Son of Jochi.
Ogedei
     Son of Genghis Khan. Second Great Khan of the Mongols, 1229-1241. His
     death halted Batu Khan's advance into Europe.
Orda
     Son of Jochi.
Polskinia
     Chief of the Brodniki, Allied to the Mongols during Batu's advance
     into Europe.
Sartak
     Christian son of Batu and the second Khan of the Golden Horde
     (1256-57).
Siban
     Son of Jochi and orlok under Batu in 1241. Led the calvary charge that
     destroyed the Templars and Archbishop Hulogin's troops at Liegnitz.
Sinkur
     Youngest son of Jochi.
Subedei Bahadur
     Once enemy, then greatest general under Genghis Khan and Batu Khan.
Suntai
     Younger brother of Batu, commander of 30,000 man army sent against the
     Saxins, Kanglis, and Kipchaks to subjugate them.
Taghudar
     Son of Hulegu, third Il-Khan of Persa (1282-84).
Tartu
     Son of Tokokan.
Temujin (Chingiz Khan or Genghis Khan)
     First Great Khan of the Mongolians; greatest of the leaders.
Tode-Mangku
     Youngest son of Tokokan and fifth Khan of the Golden Horde.
Toguchar
     Son-in-law of Genghis Khan, held part of the command of the forces
     sent to track down Muhammed II Shah when he fled Kwarizm.
Tokokan
     Youngest son of Batu Khan.
Tole-Buka
     Son of Tartu, and sixth Khan of the Golden Horde (1287-90).
Tolui
     Son of Genghis Khan.
Yessutai, or Yesukai
     Chief of the Mongols and father of Genghis Khan.

                           Mongolian Tribe Names

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 Alans           Brodnikis      Bulgars*      Keraits       Khazars
 Kipchaks*       Merkits        Mongols       Naimans       Oghuz

 Reindeer People Saxin*         Tatars        Urians        Uighurs
                                (Tartar)
 Solangs         Bouriats       Samoyeds      Khoshods      Kansou

   *Denotes a conquered tribe whose warriors were pressed into service as
                                auxiliaries.

                              Name Conjugation

A warrior named Tolui, who comes from the Keraits and leads a minghan in
battle would be called either Tolui Noyan, or Tolui of the Keraits.

                       Mongolian Arms, Armor and Garb

Every Mongol soldier was required to wear a long, loose undershirt of raw
silk. This shirt was often impervious to arrows and was pushed into the
wound --instead of being pierced-- by the shaft. Carefully lifting the
shirt around the arrow would bring the shaft and head out via the same path
it came in, resulting in a smaller wound.

For both heavy and light calvary, the basic uniform was the same --blue or
brown tunics called kalats. Blue kalats were trimmed in red around all the
borders, collars, and cuffs. The brown kalats were trimmed in light blue.
The trousers were either blue or grey. Both kalats and trousers were lined
with fur in the winter, and fur replaced the colored trim. All wore thick,
laced up leather boots with no heels.

Heavy calvary wore a coat of mail with a cuirass made of oxhide or iron
scales covered in leather over their kalats, and replaced their traditional
Mongol caps with iron helms. Light calvary wore a loricae of lacquered
leather strips and a leather helmet, or a quilted kalat and traditional
cap, and no additional armor.

The Mongol caps were quilted, cone-shaped hats with a thick fur brim, the
design of which varied from tribe to tribe and tumen to tumen. Each cap had
two red ribbons hanging from the crown and the fur of the brim denoted rank
in the army: officers wore wolf, fox, badger, and monkey; and soldiers used
dog and goat fur.

The Mongol carried round wicker and leather shields. On his left side were
two small, but powerful recurve bows, for long and short ranges, and on his
right were two quivers with no less than 60 arrows. The arrows were of
different types, including long and short distance arrows, armor-piercing
and fire arrows, arrows that whistled for signalling and arrows that
exploded. A dagger was sheathed on the inside of his left forearm and a
lasso hung from his saddle. In his saddlebags, a Mongol warrior had a
change of clothing, a cooking pot, field rations, a leather water bottle, a
fishing line, files for sharpening arrows, a needle and thread and other
tools for repairing gear. These saddlebags were waterproof, and could be
inflated and used as a flotation device to aid in crossing rivers.

Heavy calvary carried a scimitar, a mace or axe, and a twelve foot, often
bamboo, lance with a horsehair pennant and a hook below the blade. Light
calvary carried a small sword and two or three javelins --and their bows,
of course!

The Mongol horseman rode with three of four horses, often riding the mare,
as the stallion and other mares would follow along without need of lead
ropes or tethers. On long rides, the horseman could subside off the mare's
milk and blood of his mounts for many days. The Mongol warrior lived in
yurts-- felt tents of which Alcon's Gaere is a fair example (no central
support pole and the fabric was tied around a wicker or wooden frame.

Bibliography

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Abulafia, David Frederick II, A Medieval Emperor, 1988, Oxford University
Press, New York

Chambers, James The Devil's Horsemen, 1979, Atheneum, New York*

Curtin, Jeremiah The Mongols, A History, 1908, Little, Brown and Co.,
Boston

Jones, Terry and Alan Ereira Crusades, 1995, BBC Books, New York

Lewis, Geoffrey, trans. The Book of Dede Korkut, 1974, Penguin Books, New
York

Lister, R.P. Genghis Khan, 1993 Barnes & Noble, Inc., New York

Morgan, David The Mongols, 1986, Basil Blackwell Ltd., Oxford

Nicolle, David Medieval Warfare Source Book Volume 2: Christian Europe and
its Neighbors, 1996, Arms and Armour Press, London

Spuler, Bertold History of the Mongols, 1996, Barnes & Noble Press, New
York

*Use this reference for documentation on Mongolian names listed earlier for
                        the SCA College of Heralds.