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1.    Introduction

Concerns, needs and issues suggest serious and diverse problems at the National Information Infrastructure (NII). What are exactly the issues? What are their causes ? What are the recommendation for change ? These are very difficult and debatable questions. This chapter is concerned with the identification of issues relating to the NII. It is aimed at two activities: The first one is a description of NII in three countries (Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia). The second is concerned with strategic questions, answers to which will allow the researcher to understand what has been the impact of NII policies and identified list of NII issues.

Singapore’s economic planners began promoting the widespread application of IT in the early 1980s, seeing it as strategic in the restructuring of the economy toward higher value added production (Rodan, 1998). They wanted Singapore to be a production site for the world-wide IT industry. In 1980 a ministerial-level committee, the Committee on national Computerization (CNC), was established to ensure the computerization of the civil service, to boost training of software professionals, and to encourage the indigenous software and services industry (Rodan, 1998). The National IT Plan in 1986 saw the National Computer Board, Singapore Telecom, Economic Development Board, and the National University of Singapore collaborate to achieve a more integrated strategy between hardware manufacturing, and telecommunication and software services (Gilbert, 1996). In support of this plan, the late 1980s saw a range of complementary institutional initiatives and substantial state investment in physical and social infrastructure.

In 1992, the National Computer board detailed a new strategic statement, IT2000-A Vision of an Intelligent Island. Under IT2000, it is planned that all 750.000 households on the island will be connected to a comprehensive computer network by the year 2000 with the compulsory installment of broadband coaxial and optical fibre networks (Gilbert, 1995). Households, businesses, schools, libraries, government departments, and statutory authorities will be electronically interlinked to facilitate shopping and other commercial and official transactions, as well as providing cable and interactive television services and the Internet. A wireless communications network will also provide mobile computer access to information services throughout Singapore. The plan is so extensive that even public space is likely to be wired. It is proposed that television cameras be fitted at corridors, lifts, public parks, car parks, and neighbourhood centres for monitoring purposes. The plan was quickly acted on, with more than 100,000 households connected with wiring to support broadband application before mid-1996 (Rodan, 1998). It is important to note, however, that while the Internet came to be embraced as a crucial element of the IT2000 strategy, it was something that evolved rather than having been an integral element of the original conception. Also, in turning Singapore into an intelligent island providing a range of services that depend on creative intellectual capacities, innovation, and a free flow of information, Singapore’s leaders have a good deal of prior experience in controlling the political spillover from various other industries not normally associated with restrictive political cultures.

2.1.2 Key player in Singapore’s NII

Government/Regulatory Authorirty

The National Computer Board (NCB) is a statutory board responsible for IT policy and development in Singapore. Its mission is to bring Singapore to excel in the information age by exploiting IT extensively to enhance its economic competitiveness and quality of life. Telecommunication Authority of Singapore (TAS) is the national licensing and regulatory authority for posts and telecommunications. TAS' mission is to ensure that Singapore's telecommunication and postal infrastructure and services rank with the best in the world, not only in terms of quality and availability, but also in terms of price and service. TAS is also entrusted with the allocation and management of the use of radio frequency spectrum and satellite orbital slots. Singapore Broadcasting Authority (SBA) was formed as a result of the privatisation of the Singapore broadcasting industry. The Singapore Broadcasting Corporation (SBC), the former national broadcaster, was corporatised on 1 October 94 with the passing of the Singapore Broadcasting Act 1994. This Act also provided for the formation of a new statutory board - SBA – under the Ministry of Information and the Arts to regulate and promote the broadcasting industry in Singapore. The National Internet Advisory Committee (NIAC) was appointed by The Ministry of Information and The Arts in August 1996. The Committee advises SBA on the regulation of electronic information services and the development of the industry. The Committee also assists SBA in the development of its regulatory framework for the Internet.

State and Private Industry

Singapore Telecom is the current monopoly service provider for both local and international services. Its monopoly rights run out on 31 March 2000. TAS is now in the process of awarding up to two new licences for local international basic telecom services. SingTel and MobileOne are the service providers for public cellular mobile telephone services. There will be a duopoly in the provision of these services for three years, until April 2000. SingTel Paging, MobileOne, IntraPage and SunPage are service providers of public radio paging services. SingNet, Pacific Internet and Cyberway are the three service providers of Internet services.

2.1.3 Current initiatives and developments

SingaporeONE is a national initiative to deliver a new level of interactive, multimedia applications and services to everyone in Singapore. Its network services were launched by Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong on 9 June 1997 at Asia Telecom '97. To encourage the industry to take part and invest in the construction of the broadband infrastructure and in the development of applications, TAS has formed a Pioneer's Club aimed at bringing on board early innovative application and content providers using SingaporeONE as a roll-out platform. The club members will enjoy benefits such as preferential rates for broadband usage and access to other member service and users of SingaporeONE.

Figure 1. Singapore One network overview (Anon., 1998)

2.2 Malaysia-Multimedia Super Corridor.

Malaysia IT Background

Malaysia has begun implementing a plan to transform herself into an information technology hub in the Association of South East Asia Nation (ASEAN) region with the development of the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC). Malaysia-MSC will be equipped with the technology such as fibre optic lines to connect the Malaysia’s inhabitants to each other and to the world. It has a target to be established by the year 2000. The MSC is the brainchild of Malaysia’s Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Dr. Mahathir Mohamad and was announced on 29 August 1995. He outlined the MSC as a high-growth center with state of the art, high tech infrastructure to provide the appropriate bandwidth for multimedia development and delivery as well as for telecommunications. As the world moves into an era where access to information and knowledge is a key to surviving in an information technology based economy and where multimedia is at the heat of it all, Malaysia hopes to prepare herself for such a transition with the MSC.

"The MSC will be built fresh from the ground. It will house knowledge intensive industries, the kind of industries that will propel the Asia-pacific region into the information age. Future high-growth industries such as remote manufacturing and operations processing semiconductor development, distance learning, telemedicine, integrated computing and communication solutions can be located in the MSC and can act as a multicultural production and coordinating center" (Mohamad, 1998).

The MSC aims to cater to international markets and service development and to serve as a catalyst to encourage the development of multimedia and internet-type applications in Malaysia.

The concentration of the MSC will be made up mainly of 7 flagships which are as follows (Mai & Neo, 1997):

Electronic government

Telemedicine

A collaborative cluster of universities

A worldwide manufacturing web

A borderless marketing centre

A financial haven

Multipurpose smart cards

The MSC envelopes a 15 km by 50km area south of KL that includes the Kuala Lumpur City Centre, Putra Jaya, the new administrative capital and the Kuala lumpur International Airport. Within this area will be specifically designated development areas for the multimedia industry. Hardware and software manufacturers are invited to set up their plants here and enjoy the MSC’s incentives. It is also expected to house various headquarters of the multinational industries utilising the communication networks. And the MSC will provide the infrastructure for these IT industries to conduct their businesses over communication networks including the internet with comfort.

The establishment of the Malaysian Institute of Microelectronics System (MIMOS) in 1985 has shown the country’s emphasis on information technology. Telekom Malaysia Berhad, Malaysia’s communication company, will be responsible for laying down the fibre optic lines within the MSC, and the Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation (NTT) will work with Telekom Malaysia to provide engineering and consultation services. In january 1997, the International Advisory Panel (IAP) was formed , consisting of key person in the global IT industry, including Bill Gates, Jim Barksdale and Kenichi Ohmae, to advise Malaysia’s Prime Minister on the MSC. Jaring and Tmnet are currently the two Internet Service Providers (ISPs) in Malaysia.

Service provided in the MSC.

The MSC capable of supporting interactive applications such as:

telemedicine b) virtual universities c) on-line databases: video-on-demand d) broadband interactive services

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. Multimedia Super Corridor services

Malaysia’s commitment to the MSC

In its effort to achieve success in establishing the MSC, the Malaysian government will continue to liberalize the telecommunications sector and to contribute towards the growth and the development of local content for IT-based technologies and services. Steps are being taken to provide the following facilities to investors doing business in Malaysia (Mai & Neo, 1997):

A world-class physical and telecommunication network using fibre-optic as well as any supporting services.

The development of a labor force skilled in multimedia technology

Unrestricted access to foreign expertise and knowledge workers located in the MSC including the relaxation of immigration procedures and employment restrictions

The protection of intellectual property to encourage creativity and increased investment. A total of RM 50 billion is proposed to be injected into the multimedia industry until the year 2005.

Network and information system NUSANTARA-21 (NUSANTARA-21) represents the continuation of vision of the Indonesia in realizing a multiple society prosperity and spread out in the vast Nusantara (Indonesia) zone through telecommunication and information technology, i.e. vision which contained in the utilization of domestic communication satellite PALAPA in 1976 (Anon, 1997). Development and utilization of NUSANTARA-21 contains the purpose of prospering the Indonesian society with infrastructure and capability of managing and utilizing information so that the Indonesian community is capable of having a role and takes the best benefits from the economy of the very competitive global information. That conditions will increase national economic competitiveness.

Main Policy in Developing NUSANTARA-21

To be able to direct NUSANTARA-21 on the above target, development and management of NUSANTARA-21 will be carried out with the following policy pattern (Anon, 1997):

1.Reduce gap between socio-economic levels in Indonesia.

2.Encourage the growth of national industry, particularly industry in information technology.

3.Assist the realization in conducting an efficient and effective government.

4.Improve education and teaching.

5.Conserve the rich national culture.

6.Encourage the growth of other sectors

7.Distribute information access

In the early stage NUSANTARA-21 is established as information infrastructure connecting the 27 capitals of provinces in the whole Nusantara and their connection with regional as well as global information infrastructure. In the whole segments of connection, in the early stage (1996) ‘bandwidth’ or capacity provided need not be the same/uniform. In the early stage, the connection to 27 capitals of the provinces by NUSANTARA-21 is dominated by 155 Mbps of bandwidth. This means that terrestrial bandwidth, under the sea cable, terrestrial radio, and satellite can all arrange NUSANTARA-21

Multimedia Cities

Archipelagic Super-Lane connects the 27 Capitals of Provinces in Indonesia with various "backbone" transmissions and according to real bandwidth needs. The development of NUSANTARA-21 coverage at big cities in trading centers and economic as well as social activities. From stage to stage the number of multimedia cities will keep developing. Multimedia cities represent the center of economic activities which possess information highway in the city which is reliable and provide complete types of access paths and available with enough capacity so that community in the multi media cities can carry out their productive activities through information transaction in a quick and reliable way.

The development of NUSANTARA-21 so that it can cover the whole levels of Nusantara community with ‘density’ orientation is not realistic. Aside of that the one which will become the main point to provide community access to NUSANTARA-21 is service point owned and managed by TELKOM and POS INDO in the whole regions of Nusantara. It is estimated that in the year 2.000 the whole capitals of sub districts in Nusantara have already had access to NUSANTARA-21 at the needed real wide band through cheap satellite access, of PALAPA B, C, as well as D generation satellites, Garuda satellite, as well as other PCS satellite systems which will operate in Indonesia’s region.

Bearing Power of NUSANTARA-21 in National Development

NUSANTARA-21 is not intended as hardware oriented infrastructures only, but what more important is the benefits of NUSANTARA-21 to efficiency, effectiveness and growth of development. Based on the concept, in the initial stage of the utilization of NUSANTARA-21, there had been rapid growth within the Government as well as general public through various networks which have been in operation in 1996: Ipteknet, Siskom Dagri, Deperindag On-line, Inforis, ITB-net, Indonet, Radnet, Sistelindo-IBM-net, IDOLAnet, CBNnet, MELSAnet, INDOSATnet, TELKOM Ristinet, and several networks (information distribution and point system) which will keep appearing (World Bank, 1996)

With the establishment of 'network of networks' mentioned above on NUSANTARA-21 infrastructures, the activities for the utilization of NUSANTARA-21 can be carried out clearly, which comes into the way of life of the community in Indonesia which covers the main categories as follows (Anon, 1997) :

Government Sector: Conducting of Government, Education Sector, Health Services, Conducting Research, Cultural Sector

Private Sector: Banking Industry, Mining Industry, Manufacturing Industry, Tourism Industry, General Trading and Retail

Development of Local Industry

 

 

 

3. The process of inquiry

There are many systematic questions to formulate about the policy making process surrounding the NII. However, this study is concerned to ask some specific questions.

Who is involved in the policy making of NII? It is required to define who else has anything to do with this complex system. In this particular case, regardless of the responsibility to formulate national policies in information infrastructure being assigned to government authorities in these three countries, the power of public/community group and industries seems to be strong.

What has been the impact of NII policies and who has been affected by them? The economic crisis, the competition among countries, and many of the opinions concerning the NII, reveal the existence of some problem of NII performance. Because of that, a study about the impact of the NII policies which include the history and background in NII policies seems to be necessary.

In what way are the NII policies discussed and conceived? This question has to do with the debate process taking place before and after the formulation of NII policies for the purpose of improving NII performances.

What is the role of systems thinking in the NII policies and monitoring the advance of the implementation of NII policies.

Cultural driven stream

A system to continuously improve NII performance

The goal in incorporating institutions is to bridge between social concepts such as society on one hand, and more specifically social entities such as organizations, firms, groups and individual on the other (King et.al, 1994). In this analyses, we will see that institutions must be seen as entities, as networks of organizations in action, that are being shaped by individuals, groups, groups, organizations. The assumption for NII research in an institutional context is to treat institutions as powerful sources of influence and regulation that are somewhat stable than the entities they influence.

Analyses of intervention

Clients

Government agency

Public/community groups

Education institutes

Economically interested parties

Client’s aspiration: to develop a way of continuously improving the performance of NII

Problem solvers: all

Resources available: funds and policy from Owner

Constraints: possibly the economic crisis, social-political environment of NII, failure to get support

Owners

Public/community groups

Cabinet, govt agencies

Public via politicians

Implication of problem owner chosen

Reason for regarding the problem as a problem

There is a general awareness of the lack of ability to measure performances of NII

Value to the owner

Improvement in the effectiveness of NII in providing services to client are the goal.

Social Systems analyses

Government authorities: Cabinet, Government agency,

Government authorities carry the powerfull and unique strength of legal authority and set the context within which all other institutions may and shall operate. Standard setting is a form of regulation aimed at constraining options of decentralised with larger social or institutional objectives. Standard appear as instruments for state intervention in several ways. Government authorities are clearly among the most powerful institutional forces affecting NII in these three countries.Also government authorities acting to influence the policies of another country.

State industry

Powerfull industry performing important functions that provide basic services of NII

Private industry

Industry that influence the application of NII where they operate.

Public/community group

Influential groups that typically have strong voices in the society

Public

All party who use NII services.

Education institutes

Institutions that provide educations. The provision of education is usually carried out by government, but there is substantial growth of educational service provided by private institutions.

Media

Institutions that promote the use of NII and raise attention or concern regarding NII services.

In this analyses, the institutional power of to influence and regulate can be linked to ideologies governing supply-push and demand-pull approaches to NII

Political systems analysis

It describes the context in which the interaction among Owner, Actor and Clients taken place. It also includes two dimension, internal environmental conditions and external environmental conditions.

The intervening variables in the internal environment emerging from the analysis are; going concern, expectation gap, needs, dissatisfaction. NII actors needs to show that they are taking care of the resources allocated of NII owners. Actors run NII towards maintaining the Owner confidence. This can be shown through the Client’s opinion expressed by the Clients. In the same time Clients need NII service to remain in business. Therefore, Clients send their concern, need, opinion and receive in return a service perform by NII task..

The intervening variable in the external environment are; world regulation (GATT, WTO, ASEAN, APEC), technology change, global trend. The result of interaction among; Actor, Client, Owner, reflect the ongoing process of NII policies.

The outcome related to the result of interaction among; Actor, Client, Owner, includes the degree of involvement in monitoring/control task by all party, achieving a goal; cooperation, compromise, accomodation etc. Cooperation/compromise/accomodation as a dimension describes a situation in which all party; Actor, Client, Owner, have a mutual understanding and background, which lead them to cooperate and reach an acceptable situation without jeopardising the integrity of all party or showing any danger for NII situation. But if the public or one party continue to express their concern/need, the NII will decrease it’s performance. Then changes or reforms are needed.

2.6 Identify list of National Information Infrastructure (NII) issues.

The case study focuses upon the issue of implementation and application of National Information Infrastructures (NII). It is a systems investigation that is examining the problem situation of NII in the three countries, with the objective of providing a better understanding of the management of a complex system within human activity systems. It clearly illustrates that not only are there technological issues, but there are also challenges associated with national structure and need, research and education, and government role.

Perez (1997) indicates that successful establishment of NII is expressed by the following questions:

Definition of NII, understanding of NII.

How is national information structure developed?

What are the phases of development?

How is a national information infrastructure managed?

What organization and management structure is needed for a national information infrastructure ?

What is the scope of a national information infrastructure? Only the scientific elite? All of higher education? Kindergarten through his school (K-12)? Private sector research and development? All commercial users?

What applications and services are provided by such infrastructure? High performance scientific computing? Electronic-mail? Library access? Electronic publishing? Instruction? Commercial IS?

How is such infrastructure funded? Federal government? Universities? Public education? States? Private sector? Individuals?

Preliminary studies of the NII document in the three countries have been undertaken. Following section indicate of particular relevance to this study, which identifies the need, concern and issues in the implementation of NII in the three ASEAN countries, are reported. Analysis of these studies has identified common problem areas in the three NIIs.

The problems associated with NIIs are complex, unstructured and poorly defined. Soft Systems Methodology has been used to provide the theoretical framework for the study of the NII system in three NIIs. The building of NII, raises important issues of establishing NII, need, role of government, education/research, legal, technology, social and cultural. NII issues to be resolved include:

The NII should be a nation's human capital.

The NII should subsidize connection of public schools, community colleges, libraries, agricultural extension programs and community learning programs to allow broad levels of utilization by the members of society.

The NII should improve information about the information society

The NII should improve understanding of information system capabilities

The NII should supply the most advanced online infrastructure

The NII should simplify the enabling technology

 

To what extent should government be setting goals for research (funding allocation) and education (student IT literacy)

The lack of government support (Tax incentive, funds incentive)

The need for a more coherent focus and vision within government for influencing the development of the regulatory and legal environment

There is often a great reluctance to accept the role of other government authority as being coordinator to one of the NII problem area

How to erase negative perceptions that build barriers to successful NII systems.

Measuring NII effectiveness and productivity/determining the value of NII

Aligning NII and country vision.

Organizing and utilizing data

Communication between the NII and end users

Top management support

NII strategic planning

Placement of NII body

2.6.3 Maintaining national competetiveness.

Governmental support of basic research in experimental high-performances networks

National private industry has not taken sufficient advantage of commercial opportunities from public sector research.

State owned and private industry lacks a commitment to innovation, is not prepared to take risks, and concentrates on short term operational planning to the detriment of longer term strategic planning.

NII development can more focus on applications and services that meet the needs of broad range of user in education, health care and manufacturing, and other industries critical to country's economy

building on national strength and international competition

the geographical impact (consider collaborative pilot project among neighbouring countries)

Global tertiary qualifications (ISO 9000, joint program with foreign university)

High quality distance learning

IT funding. Who set the standards and provide the guidelines ?

Linking business with education. Managers in industry believe that universities/ still live in an ivory tower world, and so cannot have any understanding of the needs of the "real world".

Public sector research organizations have not been sufficiently entrepreneurial in transferring technology to industry.

Employment issues

job creation issues

productivity issues

2.6.6 Legal/Standards/Security/Intelectual Property law/protection, and privacy

Revising laws and regulations which obstruct the development and use of I.T. and communications

the same country standards and agreements should be set in order to direct competitive businessess towards the compatibility of their product this represents one of major requirements for the development of the connection with other countries.

the inability of the national standards organisations to cope with the demand or business needs of NII

the creation of standards is now very much commercially-driven activity and is often aimed at obtaining commercial advantage, either for the supplier or the customer

Standard/ Enabling Multi-vendor data interchange and integration/NII quality assurance standards

many MNC fear loss of their intellectual property rights and actively lobby for lobby for intellectual property law and their own restrictive standards

Improving information security and control

equity of access; easy access to government authorities; universal access for homes, business, public sector agencies and organizations.

ease of use and accessibility; interactivity and multimedia and integration of telecommunication resources

provide information of general interest: government, libraries, etc

 

the selection of technology

the relative technical complexity of information technology

the rate of change in the technology

the dissemination of IT

the immaturity of the technology (e-commerce related/encryption technology)

the ignorance of many IT practitioners on international standards work

the system integration

the weak of technological infrastructure such as value added networks and other services

2.6.8 Policy issues of NII.

Not one of the three countries relies only on the laws of demand and supply for NII application. The government of Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia have been particularly interventionist for the development of a competitive IT industry also for the implementation or for the promotion of their NIIs. In the meantime, the policies of a variety of institutions other than national governments authorities complement the market forces. Two aspect of NII policy are considered (Avgerou, 1996): the policy making body (who makes the policy), and the policy content (what objective to pursue).

The Policy making body.

The document of NII policy within these three countries tends to discuss only the role of national government policy. It ignores the context of multiple and diverse initiatives and actions that affect the extent and the way NII is developed, and the effect that can be achieved their application's impact. However, the NII in these three countries are created under the influence and/or the direct initiatives of various agents involved in development. The most influential agents are national government (in all cases of the three countries), regional association of countries (ASEAN, APEC, APII) international aid organizations (World Bank, ADB, ESCAP), non governmental organizations, multinational corporations, and large national companies. The limited view of NII policy as the reponsibility of national government alone reflects the dominance of the nation state as the main legitimate and effective decision making forum regarding country development. Certainly, the national state continues to be the most visible and perhaps in general terms the most powerful mechanism in making and implementing decisions affecting the socio-economic conditions of communites all around the world. In spite of attention to well publicised NII policy that has been presented in a comprehensive form, such as that of Singapore and in less degree that of Malaysia. The documents produced in Indonesia stating their NII policy bear little relation to the real struggle of the organizations of the country to acquire and effectively utilize NII capacity. A broad notion of NII policy needs to be adopted, which encompasses the interest, visions or directions followed by the variety of institutions whose initiatives, interventions and regulations affect the development of an information, NII in a geographic area and the way such and infrastructure is utilized.

The Policy Content

This framework is identified by Avgerou (1996):

The creation of data repositories with surveys, organization of national archives, or links to international databases.

Measures to encourage and promote availability and effective use of NII in strategic economic sectores.

The creation of national information infrastrcuture (NII)

Development of skills required to exploit the potential IT can provide in the emerging global economy.

Research and Development

Promotion of Information Technology related industries.

Social and Legal Measures to avoid undesirable effects and pursue developmental goals.

 

References Chapter 2

Anon. (1997). Network and Information System NUSANTARA-21. HYPERLINK http://www.telkom.co.id/nusa21/english/ as seen at 2-8-1998.

Avgerou, C. (1996). "How Can information Technology Enable Developing Countries to integrate into the global Economy ?". in Palvia, P.C., Palvia, S.C & Roche, E.M. (ed.). Global Information Technology and Systems Management. Westford, Ivy League.

Camera, R., Yen, D.C, Chou, D.C., & Lee, S., (1997). Information superhighway: current developments and future analyses. Industrial Management and Data Systems. 97/6 207-213.

Garfield, M.J. & Watson, R.T. (1997). Differences in national information infrastructures: the reflection of national cultures. Journal of Strategic Information Systems. 6(4): 313-338.

Gilbert, A.L. (1996). "A framework for Building National information Infrastructure: The of increased Reach And range in Singapore." in Palvia, P.C., Palvia, S.C & Roche, E.M. (ed.). Global Information Technology and Systems Management. Westford, Ivy League.

Hutchinson, W.E. (1997). "The Practical Use of Systems Methodologies in Environmental Management." in Stowel, F.A., Ison, R.L., Armson, R., Holloway, J., Jackson, S., and McRobb, S. (ed.). Systems for Sustainability: People, Organizations, and Environments. New York, Plenum Press.

King, J.L., Gurbaxani, V., Kraemer, K.L., McFarlan, F.W., raman, K.S., and Yap, C.S., (1994). Institutional Factors in Information Technology Innovation. Information Systems Research, 5(2): 139-169.

Mai, N. & Neo, K.T.K. (1997). The Multimedia Mosaic. Kuala Lumpur, Times Series.

Mohamad, M (1998) Excerpts From The Speeches of Mahathir Mohamad on The Multimedia Super Corridor. Subang Jaya, Pelanduk Publications.

Neo, B.S., King, J.L. and Applegate, L (1993). Singapore TradeNet (B): The Tale Continues, Harvard Business School Case

Shore, Bary. & Venkatachalam, A.R. (1996). Role of national culture in the transfer of information technology. Journal of Strategic Information Systems. 5(1): 19-38.

Perez, V.I. (1993) Developing Informatic Policies. Information Management. Volume 23: 7-14.

Rodan, Gary. (1998). The Internet and Political Control in Singapore. Political Science Quarterly. 113(1): 63-89.

Teo, H., Tan, Bernard C.Y. & Wei, Kwok-Kee. (1997). Organizational Transformation Using Electronic data Interchange: The Case of TradeNet in Singapore. Journal of Management information Systems. 13(4): 139-165.

Thow-Yick, Liang. (1993). Organized and strategic utilization of information technology: A nationwide approach. Information & management. Volume 24 : 329-337.

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