Understand SSM.
Introduction to Soft Systems Methodology
Checkland and Scholes (1990) contend that Soft Systems approach is a
particularly productive methodology for studying any organized purposeful human activity.
A set of such purposeful human activities can be termed as a system, in which the various
activities are interrelated. Soft systems methodology (SSM) refers to such a set of
activities as a human activity system. Checkland (1981) summarise a system characteristic
which can be used as the basis for examining models of human activity to satisfy the
following criteria:
The system represented by the model has an ongoing purpose or mission
There are measures of performances which signals progress or regress in
achieving mission.
The system has a mechanism for decision making process and control.
The system has component that are themselves system which interact.
It exists as a part of a wider system.
It has a boundary.
It has a resources for its own use.
It has some assurance of continuity.
Soft systems approach has been applied to various areas: public
utilities, health, industry, agriculture, research, education etc (Watson and Smith, 1988;
Checkland and Scholes, 1990). SSM has been also applied for government organization
concerned with the development of computing and telecommunication in the State government
service and Health Service at national level (Checkland and Scholes, 1990). Therefore SSM
can also be argue as useful methodology to analyse information system policy at the
national level. SSM is particularly good, because of the intellectual activity it involves
of conceptual modelling, as a tool for self-analysis for the reflective information
systems (IS) practitioner involved in projects at the national level.
There are two version of methodology available: the classic 7 stage SSM
and the developed form of SSM. The developed form of SSM examines two parallel streams of
enquiry; logical and the cultural. The main difference, in terms of the logical stream,
between this developed form and the earlier classic 7 stage approach, is that the step by
step nature of the methodology is de-emphasized. And this developed form SSM puts much
more emphasis on the stream of cultural enquiry. The methodology adopted here for
analysing the process of making NII is the developed form SSM, since the culture plays a
very important role in the process of creating NII.
A brief history of Soft Systems Methodology
Soft Systems methodology was developed by members of the Department of
Systems at Lancaster University. Professor Peter Checkland and his associates undertook
the research programme to apply engineering principles to managerial problems that were
considered to be complex problem domains. Such problem domains cannot be formulated and
defined precisely, often the problem could be considered to be an area of concern
requiring attention. There are three reasons for this, firstly, the methodology is
suitable to focus on complex problem domain, which cannot be formulated precisely.
Secondly, the methodology enables the analyst to embark on a process of learning about the
real situation being investigated. Thirdly, the methodology is an approval to aid the
analyst in thinking and suggesting recommendation for further action to improve the
problem situation. The user of SSM will always carry out both a ‘logic driven stream
of enquiry’ and a ‘cultural driven stream of enquiry’.
Logic driven stream of enquiry
There is not much difference between the logical stream of enquiry and
the earlier classic seven stage approach. The seven stage approach is summarised in figure
2. The analyst enters the problem situation. Analyst identifies primary tasks and issues.
Relevant systems are subjectively chosen and modelled. A conceptual model is constructed
and compared with the real world. The difference between the models and the real world is
identified. Changes, which are systematically desirable and culturally feasible, are
identified so that purposeful, feasible and acceptable action to improve the situation can
be taken.
Figure 2. Logic driven stream of enquiry. Clasic seven stage approach.
Source: Checkland and Scholes (1990)
Cultural driven stream of enquiry
The cultural stream of enquiry as perceived by Checkland consists of
three analysis of the problem situation; the intervention analysis, the social system
analysis and the political system analysis. Checkland and Scholes (1990) recommend that
the ideas of roles, norms and values are a way of making sense of the social contact, but
techniques from disciplines such as anthropology or sociology and other disciplines might
also be appropriate (Checkland & Scholes, 1990; Lewis, 1994)
Analysis of the intervention.
This analysis involves identifying possible roles in the situation such
as clients, problem solver and problem owner. The role of client is usually the most
straightforward to identify as this is the person or persons who caused the study to
happen. The role of problem solver is given to whoever wishes to bring about improvement
in the problem situation through active participation in the intervention process.
Consideration of the impact that analysis and the analysis process will have on the
situation being studied is needed. The role of problem owner is allocated to those
individuals who will benefit from improvements in problem situation. Checkland and Scholes
(1990) gave an example, in SSM study of the problems of vice in the West End of London,
some immediately obvious possible ‘problem owners’ would be: Parliament, the
courts, the general public, the police, their family, etc. There will be many
possibilities for who might be the problem owner. In analysis of the intervention, it is
essential to be clear about who is being taken to occupy the above three roles. There is
often some benefit to exchange role as it places a different perspective on the problem.
Analysis of the Social system
The SSM model views a ‘social system’ as a continually
changing interaction between three elements: roles, norms and values.
Each continually defines and redefines and is itself defined by the other two elements
(Checkland and Scholes, 1990). A role is a social problem that is recognised as
significant by those in the problem situation (Checkland and Scholes, 1990). Checkland and
scholes (1990) describe that the role in situation is characterised by expected behaviours
or norms. They mean also that values are those standards that the performance or behaviour
of a role will be judged by.
In SSM analysis, it need to be understand that direct questions will
probably receive a formal responses. The SSM analyst needs to be mentally open to every
conversation, interview or perusal of documents, etc. The analyst needs to review the
exchanges communication with regard to roles, norms and values.
Analysis of the ‘Political System’
In the stream of cultural analysis, the analyst accepts that any human
situation will have a political dimension, which is the process by which differing
interest reach accommodation (Checkland & Scholes, 1990). Accommodating those
interests is the business of politics, and the concept will apply to a group or a company
even a city or a nation state (Checkland & Scholes, 1990). The analyst will study in
practice by asking how power is expressed in the situation. A vital part of understanding
the nature of problem situation is understanding the politics and the political dimension
that operate within it.
Analysis of the ‘Political System’ enriches the cultural
appreciation built up in analysis of ‘Social System’ and analysis of
intervention. All three analyses complement the work of selecting, naming and modelling
relevant human activity systems and work in parallel with the logic-driven stream of
thinking. The two streams of thinking complement each other and should unfold over time.
