Featured here are a collection of essays, a short story, and an article.

Table of Contents

1. Parking Lots

2. Westbound

3. Ho Eun's Mother

4. Confucianism's Democracy in South Korea

5. Korean Women Escape Into Shamanism

Parking Lots

This is an essay explaining how Korean society has evolved with overcrowding, too many vehicles for the limited parking facilities, and its effect on a westerner who lives here and loves the culture. This article should be read with an eye towards what reactions in America might be: imagine an apartment complex in Los Angeles, New York, Washington D.C., or any other overcrowded city in the U.S. where occupants have guns.

Say_Cheez Photography

This page contains copies of my articles which have been published in newpapers and magazines. It will also contain articles which are pending publication, allowing the reader to read and comment. Please help me applaud those discrimitating editors who have demonstrated rare brilliance in wisely selecting my articles for publication.

"Parking Lots"

Originally published in The Korea Herald, July 6, 1996

Korea's love affair with the automobile has stretched the capacity of the country's road network, strained the capacity of the country's parking lots, and subverted the traditional Confucian capacity to disregard strangers.

Korean drivers have solved part of the parking space shortage by parallel parking behind cars that have pulled into marked parking spaces; however, this only works as long as none of the parallel parkers set their parking brakes.

Unfortunately, since Korea still maintains a comfortable grip on its Confucian roots, many Korean drivers demonstrate little concern for their fellow man when they park their cars. The result is a morning cacophony of blaring car horns as those drivers who arrived home in time to find a normal parking space, the early risers, find themselves blocked in by the inconsiderate late-comers who have parallel parked their cars, locked their brakes, and locked their cars.

I am a member of the early risers, and my own recent experience with this morning ballet still brings a sense of disbelief. After finding my car blocked by an inconsiderate latecomer who had set his parking brake, I walked to the kyoungbi-shil only to find that the security guard was out.

I returned to my car and began my contribution to the morning reveille and was immediately harangued by disgruntled neighbors. Incredibly, the illicit parker was pardoned because he must have been drunk; therefore, he was not responsible for his anti-social behavior. I became the anti-social outcast.

Well, this early riser refuses to be late for work, refuses to accept blame for the misdeeds of others, and refuses to excuse the inconsiderate parker because he was drunk. I don't want my neighbors talking to me about the problem; their toleration of the latecomers action is the problem. They should talk to the latecomer. The latecomer's total disregard for my neighbors and me is symptomatic of the Confucian tradition of Hyo.

While Chung and Hyo are the foundations of Confucianism, Chung became the obsessive choice of Japan while Hyo became the backbone of the Confucian tradition in Korea. Hyo is filial piety. Filial piety, when carried to extreme, brings total loyalty to one's family, one's friends, one's school and one's province, at the expense of and with complete disregard for the rest of society.

This total concern for self at the expense of strangers is anti-social behavior. Hyo exacerbates traffic jams on Korea's overcrowded roads, streets, and expressways as self-absorbed drivers refuse to "take turns," and Hyo is the conductor of the car-horn symphony performed in Korea's parking lots. Evidently, parking a car or driving a car somehow provides drivers with a certain sense of anonymity and allows them to act in a manner which Korean society would not normally tolerate.

Within two blocks of my apartment, a very wide side street remains nearly empty of parked vehicles every night, while every parking lot in the entire complex becomes a veritable maze of over-parking. Just imagine, if he had possessed the slightest consideration for others, that selfish, inconsiderate, anti-social latecomer could have simply parked on the empty street, walked for five minutes, allowed me to leave for work at my normal time, and allowed my neighbors to sleep.

What a concept!

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WESTBOUND

By

Jesse Reynolds

Interstate 70 climbs out of Denver, snakes westward into the Rocky Mountains, and takes many a driver as close to heaven as he is ever going to be. November snow on mountain pines is a scenic photograph, vision the camera, and memory the scrapbook.

The high country's peaceful morning stillness shattered, violated by a loud roar. The driver pumped the throttle and down-shifted, worked to maintain engine rpm as the 450 Cummings diesel strained under the pull of 44,000 pounds of Coors beer against the Colorado mountain.

The driver's eyes followed the sleepy mountain morning. A J.B. Hunt 18-wheeler crawled along in the right lane up ahead, a flash of headlights in the mirror revealed a four-wheeler overtaking him in the left lane. Eastbound traffic was limited to the occasional truck, Sunday mornings are seldom busy before eight o'clock. R.B. Bigelow was Westbound. R.B. was in heaven.

Life was good. The two-day layover in Denver had recharged his batteries and finalized his personal plans, now he felt exhilarated to be back on the open road. Two important dates occupied his mind, an important meeting in Las Vegas tomorrow afternoon at five, and delivering the load to Los Angeles the following morning at six. R.B.'s peripheral vision caught the piercing glint of the morning sun's reflection off a westbound airliner....

* * *

Sometimes life wasn't good. The crash site had been devastating, the heavy smell of kerosine jet fuel dominating the area even after the fire which had scorched the landscape. This had been a place of death. His wife and daughter had died in the plane crash while traveling to join him in Germany. R.B. had gone there to find closure. It didn't help.

Unable to fill the void in his life, unable to stop the ache in his heart, R.B. had retired from the Army and run away. He had used military cargo flights to hop back to Korea and explain his wife's and daughter's death to her parents. They had been so completely devastated, he had run again, this time to Seoul, and hid in a bottle.

Two months had left him a shell. Dirty, dishevelled, and unshaven, he had fallen asleep outside a clothing store. Chang Mi-hwa had found him there.

He awoke to the confusion only a bottle can bring. Someone was in his face, yelling, pushing, and bringing on a tremendous headache.

"You, go 'way!"

He mumbled incoherently, swatting awkwardly with his arms while ineffectively bicycling his legs on the sidewalk.

But Ms. Chang Mi-hwa was not to be brushed aside. She rolled him aside and unlocked the padlock which opened the outer security doors to her store, then resumed her attack.

"Go, you chase my customers away!"

R.B. had finally won the struggle to stand, but it was an even bet whether he could remain upright. "Sorry," he mumbled, then tried to turn away.

Mi-hwa caught him as he tottered, then, surprising even herself, led him inside the store and towards the bathroom in the back.

R.B. regained his senses with a start, found himself on a cold, tiled floor under an icy waterfall.

"There, now wash. I bring clothes."

R.B. had bathed, shaved, dressed in the tight fitting clothes she had provided, then joined her in the store.

"You ruin my business today."

"I'm sorry, lady."

Mi-hwa had been touched by something. She wasn't sure what it was, probably the deep pain and sorrow in his eyes, but he was reaching her.

"You Army?" she asked, referring to the American base at Yongsan, or any number of U.S. Army posts scattered between Seoul and the demilitarized zone separating the two Koreas.

"No, I'm retired. My wife and daughter have died, and I am here helping her parents. They are...taking all this pretty hard. I...I'm sorry."

Mi-hwa led him outside the store and into the small restaurant around the corner. She spoke quickly to the waitress, led him to a table, then left.

R.B. ate heartily. Rice, spicy Kimchi cabbage, and broiled beef kalbi began to restore his mind and body. He drank two cups of coffee, then rose to pay.

"Lady pay," the waitress said.

R.B. walked the morning streets, letting the crowds propel him along, no destination requiring his immediate attention. His mind kept returning to the lady. She was pretty, mid to late thirties, hair stylishly short, and so self-assured. He hadn't even thanked her. He turned back.

"Thank you. My name is R.B. Bigelow."

"My name Chang, Mi-hwa. You need help...."

* * *

"Where ya headed?" the J.B. Hunt driver's voice on his CB radio broke his reverie.

"Shaky," R.B. replied, checking his mirrors then easing around the J.B. Hunt tractor-trailer.

"Okay, Mr. England, bring her back over," the J.B. Hunt driver said, letting him know he was safely past, then continued: "I'm headed for L.A. too. Wish I had a real engine so I could run with you."

"Appreciate it, J.B. You take care now," R.B. finished, clearing the mirrors again before returning to the right lane. R.B. let the microphone swing from its anchor wire above the sun visor, took a deep satisfying breath, then relaxed into the slow mountain climb....

* * *

R.B. had used the day to clean up. Dressed in properly fitting new clothes, he was waiting when Chang Mi-hwa closed and locked her store at nine o'clock that evening. "Would you let me buy dinner?" he asked.

Mi-hwa looked in his eyes, "I don't know...."

"Please...."

They shared life-stories over a quiet steak dinner at Sables Restaurant in the Dragon Hill Lodge on the south post of Yongsan Garrison. R.B. listened quietly as Mi-hwa told her story. When she had caught her husband of ten years with another woman, he had thrown her out. When she complained, he had divorced her, and following Korean tradition, he had custody of their two sons. During the past two years, he had not even allowed her to visit her children. She had bought the clothing store with money she had saved and hidden during her abusive marriage. She missed her sons, was lonely, a divorced Korean woman has limited marriage prospects in the male-dominated Confucian society, but led a financially comfortable life now. Sometime during her story, R.B. had taken Mi-hwa's hand in his own. It was such a natural, human reaction that neither seemed to notice.

R.B. related his own story, feeling a leaden fist partially release its icy grip on his heart as Mi-hwa held his hand and listened with quiet understanding. Afterwards, holding each other, they had walked back into town, each now wonderfully comfortable in the company of one who had been a stranger this morning....

* * *

"How about ya, westbound?"

R.B. grabbed the microphone, "Go ahead."

"D.O.T. is checking logs at the chicken coop, otherwise, your good back to Vail. Snow on the sides all the way, but the roads are clear."

"Appreciate it, eastbound. I just left Coors at Golden, so I can't help you past there."

"Thanks, driver. I'm only going to the Mile Hi. Ya'll have a good day now. I'm gone."

R.B. took the next exit, stopped on the side of the exit ramp, and updated his driver's logbook. Like most drivers, his book was behind, but it only took a few minutes to log his days off, loading, and vehicle inspection this morning. Satisfied, R.B. checked his mirrors and resumed his journey....

* * *

R.B. could see their reflection in the mirror of the hotel room. Mi-hwa was a passionate lover, demanding yet willing. But tonight it wasn't love. Tonight, they were each filling a physical need. Later, exhausted, they lay beside each other, sometimes talking, into the early morning hours, making neither excuses nor promises. But mostly they held each other, comfortable in the warm silence....

* * *

R.B. proceeded through the truck weigh station behind another big truck. On the rear of its trailer's double doors, on the lower right side, was a sign stenciled with four inch letters, "CAUTION, SHOW CHICKENS IN TRANSIT." R.B. chuckled to himself, as he eased up to the D.O.T. cop, and presented his logbook. The D.O.T. cop glanced at today's page, then began flipping back towards the front of the book. Finding nothing amiss, he tossed the book through the cab window. R.B. accelerated smoothly and quickly out of the weigh station, building speed as he resumed battle with the Rocky Mountains....

* * *

R.B. had left Korea when his tourist visa expired. He could not remember much of the first two months, but the last thirty days with Mi-hwa had turned his life around. They had talked honestly to each other between long, intimate periods of silence. Being with her, talking to her, caring for her was having a therapeutic effect. While Mi-hwa worked at her store, R.B. had rethought his future in the peace and quiet of her apartment. Occasionally, he had walked to a nearby coffee shop and sat for hours enjoying the solitude. With only three days remaining on his visa, he had a plan.

Mi-hwa had not fully understood why he wanted to drive a truck, considered a low-class job in Korea, but it seemed to reignite a fire deep inside him so she had been supportive. R.B. had made no promises, and Mi-hwa had made no demands. The future would be.

R.B. had spent two weeks at the C.R. England & Sons Company Truck Driving School in Salt Lake City, two weeks with an experienced driver-trainer to polish his skills, then two weeks with another student as a co-driver. That was five years ago.

These days, R.B. made a comfortable living. Military retirement after twenty years of service gave him $1,200 monthly, his take home pay as a company driver was over $700 weekly after taxes, and every six months he took a thirty-day break to fly to Seoul and be with Mi-hwa.

* * *

Vail pass was proving a tricky run. R.B. was moving smoothly downhill, he had downshifted early and set his Jake brake to use the engine's compression to hold the rpm back, but a pink Ford Mustang in a hurry had passed him then became suddenly aware of the icy patches. Instead of holding a steady speed, the pink Mustang would speed up then suddenly slow down, forcing R.B. to change lanes or use his own brakes too much. Anger began to build as the temperature of the big truck's brakes rose, so R.B. let a blast on his air-horn release some of the steam. The Mustang swerved, sped up briefly, then slowed abruptly. R.B. signalled, checked his mirrors, then moved smoothly into the left lane to pass the car. But the Mustang, not wanting to be behind a truck, raced ahead to keep him from passing. R.B. signaled and returned to the right lane, only to see the pink car slowing again. R.B. downshifted once more, slowed his tractor-trailer enough to let the erratic Mustang pull away, and allowed the Colorado mountains to become Korea's mountains....

* * *

Mi-hwa enjoyed showing off Korea to R.B. During each of his visits, she would arrange for them to explore another exotic portion of the country. On Mount Sorak, they had enjoyed spectacular scenery, and took turns at the famous rocking rock, a 2,000 pound rock balanced so carefully even Mi-hwa was able to rock it back and forth. On Cheju Island, they rented horses to ride the scenic countryside, watched the women divers search for sea delicacies much like their grandmothers had, and viewed the spectacular morning sunrise from the Island's volcanic east coast. On Anmyong-do Island, they chartered a fishing boat trip to the Yellow Sea catching 48 fish, camped out on the beach, and made love under the stars, a first for each of them....

* * *

"Westbound."

"Go."

"Be careful around that next curve. There's a four-wheeler stuck up under the trailer of a furniture hauler, come on."

"What happened, eastbound?" R.B. suppressed a grin.

"Some guy in a pink Mustang cut the four-wheeler off, poor guy hit a patch of ice and slid under the bedbug. There's two full-growed bears on the scene, so you should be clear to Glenwood Springs."

R.B. saw the flashing lights from the two Colorado State Patrol cars marking the scene. A late model Pontiac Firebird was underneath the trailer of a Mayflower Van Lines rig. It figured, the driver of the pink Mustang who had caused the accident probably didn't even realize it. R.B. had witnessed hundreds of similar scenes. The Firebird's driver, a young male, was still trying to figure out what happened, and just look at his new red car. The Mayflower driver, sitting in his cab and updating his logbook, acknowledged R.B. with a head shake and a casual wave as he passed....

* * *

Mi-hwa crossed her arms on his chest, supporting her chin while she gazed into his eyes. R.B. felt a warmth in her presence that he found nowhere else.

"Whatcha thinking?" he asked.

"I'm happy," she replied.

"Yeah, me too. I didn't think it was possible."

But in his heart, R.B. was afraid to tell Mi-hwa how he really felt about her. They were warm and happy with their special months together, and anything more might shatter it.

He smiled and opened his arms to her....

* * *

"How 'bout cha big truck?"

R.B. ignored the call on his CB, irritated by the disturbance.

"How 'bout that westbound 18-wheeler?"

Glenwood Springs, Colorado, can only be reached via a beautiful canyon drive. The Colorado River marks the left side of the roadway when you are westbound, flowing swiftly while frequently tumbling through rocky stretches of rapids, where it becomes a white froth. Granite cliffs are the scars which remember how the interstate was wrenched from Mother Nature, but even they are beautiful.

"Come on England truck, ya got your ears on?"

R.B. shoved a Compact Disk into his stereo, and relaxed to the gentle music of Kenny G's Dying Young. A 30-foot Winnebago motor home began passing him, the driver waving a CB mike and trying to attract his attention. R.B. ignored him.

"Me an' Ethel are taking us a vacation. We are headed for California now, Disneyland, Hollywood...." R.B. turned his CB down so the words were lost in Kenny G's Driving North, eased up on the throttle enough to allow the motor home to pull away, then allowed himself to be enshrouded by the music. He was beginning to feel the first pangs of hunger....

* * *

Mi-hwa was a good cook, but she rarely had time. By herself, she would usually stop by a small restaurant for Kimchi and rice, or a quick bowl of noodles. R.B.'s visits allowed her to show off her talents, but only if they were going to stay home over the weekend. R.B. was also a good cook, and he delighted in surprising her occasionally with special home cooked meals when she returned from work. When they traveled together, both enjoyed the variety of foods available in Korea: Chinese, Thai, Japanese, and even spicy Indian meals....

* * *

R.B. turned up his CB after an eastbound trucker flashed his headlights.

"Mr. England?"

"Yessir?"

"I was wondering if you was home. There's a full-growed bear rolling westbound about 2 miles ahead of you. Had my dog barking something fierce."

"Appreciate it, eastbound," R.B. glanced at the indicator lights on his own radar detector for reassurance. "You're good back into Mile Hi. Vail Pass had a few greasy patches, and two bears were working a meeting between a large car and a four-wheeler at the bottom. I turned my radio down because of a ratchet-jaw."

"Fred and Ethel?"

"Yep."

"Aw, they seemed harmless. He just retired from making Fords up in Detroit, and now they are having their big adventure."

R.B. pulled into the Grand Junction truck stop, parked in the last row of the graveled parking lot, and entered the rustic dining room for his meal. The down-home smell of meat and potatoes greeted him at the door, the friendly waitress placed a steaming cup of hot coffee on the counter in front of him, then fled with a "be right back for your order, hon," thrown over her shoulder.

R.B. took a sip of the coffee....

* * *

R.B. and Mi-hwa sat in a coffee shop. On his last few trips to Seoul, Mi-hwa had been acting strangely. She seemed to be wanting more, or at least expecting something more from him, but she wouldn't admit to it. It was nothing she said directly, but they had known each other for what, two years now. Neither of them wanted children, but now that he thought of it, there was a certain desperation in her lovemaking now. R.B. was fairly sure Mi-hwa wanted to take their relationship to the next level, but he wasn't sure he wanted the commitment. Still, every time he passed a traffic accident, where someone's life had ended abruptly, he was forced to evaluate his own life, and what brought him happiness.

* * *

West of Grand Junction, Colorado, interstate 70 loses some of its beauty. The rugged peaks are behind, the countryside flattens briefly before beginning a gradual descent, the November grass is dead, and the hills, now lined with leafless trees and the many stunted, disfigured pines, might be on some lonely, desolate planet.

R.B. traveled on into the gathering darkness, a few cars ahead of him, but off in the distance, their presence marked by tiny red taillights that would disappear and reappear with rises in the landscape. Eastbound traffic was even lighter now, only the hearty tackle the Rocky Mountains on a November night.... * * *

Mi-hwa sat on the floor of the room holding his head in her lap. "R.B., what am I going to do with you?" R.B. gazed up at her, a feeling of warmth enveloping his being.

"Marry me."

"What?" Mi-hwa searched his eyes intently. Random thoughts filled her mind. He's teasing me, he's testing me, he's leaving me, he hopes I'll say no, he's serious! "You sure?" was all she could manage.

"I'm scared, but I wish I had asked you years ago, instead of wasting all this time." He shifted his position, taking her in his arms, "We may take some time to adjust to each other on a full time basis, but I think we can make it, do you?"

"Yes!"

"Let's start the paperwork tomorrow, then. Do you want to come to the states, or do you want me to move here?"

"I want your happiness. I go with you," she answered....

* * *

The Mule deer, an eight-point accompanied by four large does, were trying to get to their secret watering hole and were nervous. Every time they stepped on the roadway, another roaring thing with bright lights would chase them back. Finally, the deer jumped and ran across the road, scared but driven by thirst.

The pink Mustang, now eastbound, was in a hurry. The driver saw the deer flashing past his windshield and panicked. He swerved, screamed, entered the median, hit his head on the side window, turned the wheel back to the right, and saw the headlights. He made a gurgling sound as he drew a breath from the bottom of his stomach to launch a final scream, but the headlights were gone....

* * *

R.B. glanced at his watch. He was making good time. He would meet Mi-hwa tomorrow afternoon in Las Vegas, they would be married, then she would accompany him to Los Angeles. After that, ... the car came out of nowhere. R.B was entering a right-hand curve, saw a flash of lights in the median, then it was on him. He turned the wheel....

* * *

The Mustang's driver slammed on his brakes, his car skidding to a stop on the right side of the westbound lanes. He opened his door and stepped out of the car only to collapse in a heap. His knees, now made of Jell-O, would not support him. He coughed again and again, there was so much dust in the air. Then he saw the truck....

* * *

R.B. turned into the skid, accelerated, and fought for control. It was too late. The tractor turned sideways and rotated back into the right front edge of the trailer, which was still westbound at some fifty miles per hour, eighty thousand pounds of accident looking for a place to happen.

The heavy trailer propelled the tractor off the north shoulder of the roadway, and began consuming it as they bounced and skidded across the rocky earth. The first pine tree was no match, but it managed to open a gash in the trailer's aluminum skin before disappearing in a cloud of dust and splinters. The second pine, aided by a rocky outcropping, was more prepared....

* * *

The Mustang's driver wobbled over to the truck, slightly more secure on knees now made of sponges. The trailer lay on its side, torn open, its load a scattered pile of beer kegs and cans. The tractor's cab was a ruined mess of twisted metal and broken fiberglass. The driver looked up at him and smiled....

* * *

R.B. smiled as Mi-hwa walked gently towards him. "I'm sorry for making you wait so long," R.B. said, "I love you."

"Dude, you musta' hit your head," replied the Mustang driver.

"I love you, Mi-hwa."

Then he stopped breathing....

"I got help on the way! An ambulance will be here in a few minutes," a beefy man in a red flannel shirt called as he trotted up to the wreck. "Can I help?"

"Man, this dude's off his nut," replied the Mustang driver, "He ran me off the road, now he says he's in love with me. Must be on some wild drugs, man."

The beefy man shoved the Mustang driver aside and began ripping open the truck driver's shirt; then he was busy pounding on the driver's chest and breathing into his mouth.

"Come on, buddy, breathe, dammit...."

* * *

Mi-hwa entered the room and stood near the door sobbing. She had flown from Las Vegas within hours of the phone call.

R.B. turned to stare at a vision of love: "I love you." He tried to rise as he continued, "My God, I almost lost you, us, everything out there." He knew he was babbling, but he couldn't stop, the words had to be said, "And all because I was a fool, because I was afraid to commit. I almost waited too long. We've got to make the most of the time we have, or else life is meaningless."

Mi-hwa moved to sit beside him on the bed, grasped his hand, kissed it, then clutched it to her breast. Tears streamed down her face, but they were no longer tears of fear or tears of grief. These were tears of love, tears of relief....

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The following article was originally published in the Blue Muse literary magazine, 1996/1997 Winter edition.

HO EUN’S MOTHER

Pyonghwa, Korean for peace, tranquility, and the absence of stress, is only a dream for many Korean women. Six hundred years of Confucian tradition, societal pressure, and male preference have created conditions which prevent many middle-aged Korean women from releasing their stress. Pyonghwa is Dr. Ae Sun Park’s passion.

In 1977, when Ae Sun Park, armed with a degree in psychology, married Jin Hee Chung, a man with a degree in architecture from Hanyang University and a Master’s in Economics from Yonsei University, traditional Korean culture crashed head-on with the twentieth century. Each felt the other was a wonderful choice, but there was one minor complication: Jin Hee Chung was the first son of a first son. Korea is a patrilineal neo-Confucian society, where the first son is expected to take care of his parents forever. When Ae Sun moved in with her new husband and his family, her life became centered around cooking, cleaning, having children, and taking care of her husband and his parents; her psychology degree was now pointless.

Ae Sun dreamed of continuing her education, but that seemed hopeless as the early marriage years quickly became a time of trial and turmoil. Her husband’s mother died a year after the wedding and his father was ill.

Her husband was making very good money with Borneo Company, but they had few hours together. He worked from eight in the morning until nine in the evening, a short work day by 1978 Korean standards. Actually, he often did not get home until midnight, sometimes later, because Koreans, according to an old custom, could not leave their work area until the boss finished.

The year 1978 would prove even more trying. Ho Eun, the eldest daughter, was born. Jin Hee was hired by Hyundae Construction Company and began work in Ulsan, 530 kilometers southeast of Seoul and a five-and-one-half hour train ride. During the 1970’s, Koreans worked seven days a week. Every other Sunday was given as a day off, so her husband would catch a crowded Saturday night train for a few precious hours with his family, sleeping on a newspaper on the walkway between cars.

Ae Sun describes a typical 1978 day as beginning a 6:00 A.M., when she started preparing breakfast for her husband’s family, and ending with exhaustion around 10:00 P.M. In between, hours passed in a monotonous succession of tasks: washing dishes, cleaning rooms and preparing meals.

Cleaning house in Korea, a traditional process passed down through the generations, is performed several times each day using a towel, called a kollae. The housewife wipes the floor of each room by hand, rinses the towel, and repeats the process until the floor is spotless.

Ae Sun’s only break came between three and four each afternoon, when she went to the market to select food for the evening’s dinner and the following morning’s breakfast. She was working all of the time, but only seeing her husband two or three times each month. She had become a servant for his family.

"I was frustrated, depressed and regretted my marriage," she said, "I began flower arranging and singing lessons for one hour each week at the YMCA to overcome my depression, but I had to quit both after one month; I just didn’t have enough time." But Ae Sun was luckier than most Korean wives. When she discussed her dreams and frustrations with her husband, he was supportive.

Jin Hee left Hyundae in 1981 to become director of the planning department of Life Construction Company, allowing him to work in Seoul and be home nights, but doing little to relieve the basic stress in Ae Sun’s life. Finally, in 1984, when their youngest daughter began elementary school, Ae Sun received her second chance at life.

Jin Hee’s decision to satisfy his wife’s desire to continue her education was a lonely, remarkable choice. Many Korean husbands from his generation would not have been so understanding, and Jin Hee’s more traditional friends were astonished at the apparent disregard for his property and waste of resources. Traditionally, a daughter was only educated to acquire a better marriage partner or to add to the family’s status; educating a married woman was inconceivable. A married woman was expected to concern herself solely with the needs of her husband and his family. She was their servant.

The young couple sold the land Jin Hee’s father had given as a wedding present so that Ae Sun could return to her alma mater, Sukmyung Women’s University. Her graduate studies competed for time with her other duties: mother, cook, housekeeper, household servant—and a part-time job where she helped other students type their master’s theses. Ae Sun’s struggles were compounded in 1986. She earned her master’s degree, but her husband left his lucrative position with Life Construction to study full-time for his architectural license. "This was the lowest level of our life together," she says, "we had no money, no position; my husband was either away working or was at the library studying for his license4, and we were spending all of our savings."

But the struggles have paid off. In 1989, Jin Hee started his own company, Hankook Dosi (Korean Urban) Architecture Company, and in 1994, Awe Sun completed her doctorate in counseling psychology.

Today, Jin Hee has succeeded beyond his dreams, and credits much of his success to Ae Sun’s influence. Jin Hee admits to having changed a lot as a man over the years. "When we first married, I thought, like most Korean men, that a wife must stay home and keep house." Today, three of the twenty-five architects working for his company are women, and all employees are paid equally. His most recent secretary was a married woman, but she had to leave the job when her own husband began complaining about her not being home. Having achieved financial success with his architectural company and having sacrificed much family time to build his business, Jin Hee would now like to spend more time at home.

* * *

"I supported my husband while he built his business," Ae Sun says (she had shifted uncomfortably in her chair when Jin Hee mentioned wanting to spend more time with his family) "but I have not yet fulfilled my dreams."

Ae Sun is now a counselor at Sukmyung Women’s University, and works part time teaching classes in human relations, mental health and stress management, and assertiveness training, and conducting group counseling sessions for "Life Long Education," Korea’s adult education program. The students are mostly middle-aged housewives whose children have grown and left home.

Ae Sun also collaborates with colleagues in publishing textbooks on Korean feminist issues. "Korean women have no control over their lives after they marry," she said. "These women need choices after their youngest child has reached five years old and started school; this is when so many women evaluate their lives and become frustrated and depressed. Their only identity is through their children. I know, it happened to me." By tradition, Korean women are not called by name, rather, Dr. Ae Sun Park is called Ho Eun’s mother.

Wealthier Korean women, finding their children grown and out of the house, are seeking release through other avenues. Cabarets are doing a brisk afternoon business in major cities by appealing to these ladies with time n their hands. Dancing has become a favorite pastime, and some married women are even taking lovers.

Dr. Park works to provide more opportunities for Korean women, a chance for them to work part time or a chance to continue their education. She has given many group counseling sessions to Korean women following requests from Korea’s YMCA and YWCA. "I am a Korean feminist," she says, "many of my friends have asked me to choose a different word because of the negative image associated with feminism in Korea. They are worried about its impact on my career, because many Korean universities will not engage anybody associated with feminism. But I don’t care. This is just too important."

* * *

Recent changes in Korean society provide hope for the future of women. With the male birth rate exceeding the female birth rate, with Korean women demanding opportunities enjoyed by women in other modern countries, traditionally-minded first sons are having trouble finding wives. Modern, educated Korean women are thinking hard about marriage. Given the choice of marrying the traditional first son of a first son or marrying the non-traditional son, given the choice of remaining single and having a career or getting married and becoming a household servant, Korean women are making choices which Korean society will have to respond to. Korean men are finally recognizing that their wives and daughters may have desires and goals other than domestic servitude.

Confucianism's Democracy in South Korea

Confucianism dominates South Korea's Democracy. One article ("Confucianism: New Fashion," 1995) describes Confucianism as a combination of ideas that is "part religion, part ethical code, part social ritual and part political philosophy." A system of beliefs proposed by the Chinese sage Kung Fu Tze who died around 479 B.C. (p.38), Confucianism emphasizes status which is obtained through proper observance of the five relationships of ruler and subject, father and son, older brother and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend.

Macdonald (1990) describes how Confucianism became an official part of the Korean political culture at the start of the Yi Dynasty, around 1392, eventually becoming the dominating influence during the 16th century (p. 117). He lists the major precepts of Confucianism as viewing society as a part of an arranged universe in which harmony and order are integral; a system of hierarchical relationships between everyone except the closest of friends; acceptance of an autocratic governmental system as long as leaders govern effectively and retain the right to rule through the mandate of heaven; and perception of individual obligations to family, group, and leaders over individual liberties (p. 118). Another article ("Two Nations," 1992) describes Confucianism in Korea as having been "Koreanized" to suit the needs of the society (p. 8).

Democracy is a relatively new concept to Koreans, introduced in the 1940s, and is still struggling as it also becomes Koreanized to fit the culture and society. Ching (1993) describes Koreans, like residents of many Asian Democracies, as perplexed by accusations of human rights violations by Western Democracies. They feel that a person who lives in fear of venturing outside after dark, is being deprived of the fundamental exercise of liberty. Ching adds that maintaining safe streets is considered a primary responsibility of the Korean government. He notes that South Koreans believe that human rights for citizens "include the right not to be mugged, robbed, raped, murdered, accosted, assaulted, humiliated, or intimidated on the streets." He contends that Koreans see Western Liberal Democracies in general, and the United States in particular, as viewing human rights as protection of individual freedoms, even above safeguarding the rights of society as a whole (p. 27). In South Korea, the President and the police exercise powers which create an atmosphere that would be considered authoritarian in most Western Democracies. Under the provisions of South Korea's first Constitution, written in 1948, the Presidency is a powerful office. The President of South Korea is the executive head of the Government, the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, and the Republic's foreign relations representative. Reeve (1979) describes how the President of South Korea was authorized to issue orders and decrees to implement his powers, was empowered to appoint the cabinet or State Council, the Chief Justice and the premier (subject to ratification by the Assembly), to appoint and remove ministers and government officials, to conclude and ratify treaties, declare war or make peace, to confer honours and decorations, and grant amnesties, pardons, etc. 39

Reeve reminds us that the major omission in the South Korean Constitution was the failure to provide adequate powers to the National Assembly for ensuring executive responsibility and to checking the powers of the executive (p. 40). Under the Constitution, if the President declares martial law, the National Assembly can override him with a two-thirds vote; however, since the President also has the power to dissolve the National Assembly, this vote is meaningless. This was demonstrated in 1972 by Park Chung Hee when he implemented his Yushin Constitution, and in 1980 following Chun Doo Hwan's coup and the resulting demonstrations in Kwangju.

Macdonald (1990) contends that having an "open debate" and a "loyal opposition" are concepts that are difficult for many Koreans to comprehend, for their culture has traditionally valued authority, loyalty, hierarchy, and harmony (p. 119).

This view is supported by Gerald Segal, Chief Asia Specialist for the London-based International Institute of Strategic Studies, quoted in Walsh (1993) who reports that Confucian governments receive legitimacy de facto, "and that means not only economic success but also political stability, even if that involves dictatorial methods" (p. 17).

Malaysian scholar Zakaria Haji Ahmad, also quoted in Walsh, adds that, "In Asia, the public will not tolerate a weak government. It is destined to fail" (p. 17).

Walsh maintains that the Korean model of Democracy is more authoritarian than Western Liberal Democracies, emphasizing respect for elders and authority, and individual responsibilities over individual rights (p. 17).

Han (1974) defines Liberal Democracy as having one distinguishing characteristic, toleration of "unorthodox dissent," unless it "constitutes a clear and present danger." He adds that "when a society feels it cannot tolerate many areas of unorthodox dissent, liberal democracy becomes untenable." He feels that South Korea, facing an immediate external threat from North Korea while containing sharp internal political divisions, was not ready for Liberal Democracy (p. 6).

Hahm (1975) disagrees with an "authoritarian mentality" as the reason Koreans can not appreciate a loyal opposition; rather, he attributes the reason to the Confucian life-style which seeks to omit every form of "tension, strain, conflict, challenge, confrontation, opposition, and adversity" (p. 353).

Korean legal scholar Hahm Pyong-choon, quoted in Wright (1975) asserts that "the rule of law has never been a desirable goal of politics in Korea" (p. 8). Confucian teachings offer the concept of "Li" which describes a "moral expression of the way of the Universe. When both the ruler and the ruled act according to Li, harmony prevails" (p. 6). There is no inherent inclination in the Korean system to establish authority in a ruler, then provide for a counterbalancing opposition force.

Unfortunately, Confucianism's emphasis on harmony does not provide for a loyal opposition and the adversarial relations so prevalent in Western Democracies. In Korea, anyone who criticizes the government is viewed as unpatriotic. Therefore, revolution, in the form of overthrowing an ineffective or bad leadership, is the only system for change in a Confucian society. South Korea's history accurately reflects this Confucian tradition with political change, as Democracy has traveled a graveled road in South Korea. Since the founding of the Republic of Korea in 1948, until the 1992 election of Kim Young Sam as the first civilian president in over 30 years, South Koreans have tolerated a series of oppressive, authoritarian regimes, interspaced with three periods when attempts were made for a more liberal system.

Steinberg (1989) reports that Syng Man Rhee, Korea's first elected president, used strong-arm tactics to dominate the country's politics, changed the Constitution to give himself a dictator's powers, and passed a National Security Law with which he terrorized and suppressed any organized political opposition (p. 53).

He describes the student-led revolution of 1960 as returning South Korea to a reformed elected government, featuring a Prime Minister, and severely curtailing the powers of the President. This newest experiment with democracy showed promise with many enhanced freedoms; however, Korean Army General Park Chung Hee seized the opportunity provided by the initial disorganization and weakness of the Chang Myon government, staged a coup in 1961, and returned the country to authoritarian rule (p. 55).

Steinberg contends that, to Park, the Constitution was just another dictator's tool. Park amended it to allow himself additional terms, and ultimately restored the dictatorial Presidency through the Yushin Constitution of 1972, which made it a state crime to question or protest the Constitution. Student-led revolution eventually led to the fall of the Park regime in 1979, when the President was assassinated by his director of Korea's Central Intelligence Agency, following a disagreement on the amount of force to be used against demonstrators (p. 58).

Steinberg alleges that when Choi Kyu Hwa assumed the Presidency under the authority of the Constitution, the country seemed once again poised to move toward liberal democracy; however, Korean Army General Chun Doo Hwan acted on perceived weaknesses in the Choi government and staged a bloody coup to seize power (p. 59).

He adds that Chun was virtually forced to follow his own Constitutional revisions and step down during 1987 when General Noh Tae Woo, his hand-selected successor, publicly distanced himself from the President and called for Democratic reforms. Facing the alternative of renewed public demonstrations and protests, which would threaten South Korea's hosting of the 1988 Olympic Games, Chun relented (p. 63).

The transition of power from Chun to Noh was the first peaceful transfer of power in the Republic's history, and the Noh government continued to liberalize and offer democratic reforms. Spaeth (1995) contends that 1990 was a turning point in Korean politics, with President Noh forming a large coalition party modeled along the lines of Japan's Liberal Democratic Party. Noh's Democratic Justice Party merged with Kim Young Sam's Reunification Democratic Party and Kim Jong Pil's New Democratic Republican Party to form the umbrella Democratic Liberal Party. Kim Dae Jung's refusal to merge his Peace and Democracy Party restored South Korea's two-party system, and provided the main source of opposition (p. 21).

Kim Young Sam's move to join the Democratic Liberal Party enabled him to defeat Kim Dae Jung in the 1992 election, and become the Republic's first civilian President in over thirty years. Spaeth details how Kim has used his Presidency to pass a series of anticorruption laws which have transformed Korea's political landscape (p. 21). During July 1995, thanks to Kim's reforms, local elections were held in South Korea for the first time since 1960, restoring democracy to the community level by electing some 5,700 offices which were formerly filled through the political spoils system.

The future of Confucianism's impact on society and politics in South Korea will be determined as democracy becomes more accepted, becomes more integrated, and becomes more Koreanized. According to Walsh, today's better educated and wealthier South Koreans are not showing as much deference to others simply because they are in some "position of authority" (p. 19).

Works Cited

Ching, F. (1993, April 29). Eye on Asia: Asian view of human rights is beginning to take shape. Far Eastern Economic Review. 156(17), 27. Confucianism: New fashion for old wisdom. (1995). The Economist, 334(7898), 38. Hahm, P. C. (1975). Toward a new theory of Korean politics. In E. R. Wright (Ed.), Korean politics in transition (pp. 321- 355). Seattle: University of Washington Press. Han, S. J. (1974). The failure of democracy in South Korea. Berkeley: University of California Press. Macdonald, D. S. (1990). The Koreans: Contemporary politics and society. Boulder: Westview Press. Reeve, W. D. (1979). The republic of Korea. Westport: Greenwood Press. Spaeth, A. (1995, June 26). He's just tough enough. Time International, pp. 18-23. Steinberg, D. I. (1989). The Republic of Korea: Economic transformation and social change. Boulder: Westview Press. Two nations, One past. (1992). Scholastic Update, 124(13), 8-9. Walsh, J. (1993, June 14) Asia's different drum. Time International, pp 16-19. Wright, E. R. (Ed.). (1975). Korean politics in transition. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Korean Women Escape Into Shamanism

Discrimination against Korean women, brought about by the sudden cultural shift to Confucian values during the 14th century and the impossibility of divorce, has led to females dominating the shaman profession in Korea, and has led to college educated Korean females becoming shamans.

Korea's Yi dynasty, 1392 - 1910, is generally accepted as the period when Korea began to out-Confucian China, but it is also the period when the treatment of Korean women entered the dark ages. During this era, the role of women in Korean society changed from one of comparative equality in the preceding dynasty to one of almost total servility. These neo-Confucian Korean women had three masters during their life time: their fathers during youth, their spouses during marriage, and their oldest sons during old age. This era of almost total suppression continued deep into the twentieth century and only the forced opening of the Hermit Kingdom and the influence of Western nations enabled Korean women to discover that freedom and choices existed elsewhere.

Korea is also noted as one of the few countries where Shamanism remains deeply rooted in the culture. But unlike Siberia, China, and other famous shamanist cultures where male shamans predominate, Korean shamans are mostly female.

Korea is a patrilineal society. The preference for sons remains strong; the nation's laws are designed to support male dominance. Until recently, Korean women were unable to obtain a divorce; however, now that divorce is possible, children are routinely placed with the father. These restrictions bring unimaginable stress on those women compelled to endure unhappy marriages to abusive or philandering husbands.

Korean shamans claim that they become united with their deities in a mystical union. For many Korean women, this mystical union with the gods offered the only possible release from an unhappy life sentence.

As an industrialized Korea assumes its place in the world, the domination of Korean shamanism by females may change. Korean women today have many opportunities under the expanded Korean educational system; however, many college educated women discover traditional stresses still exist following their marriage vows. While Korean men would seem to have little motivation to change their traditional behavior towards women, as Korean women become more aware of the outside world and the expectations of women there, many of these women may opt for professional careers rather than a traditional Korean marriage.

Renowned anthropologist Youngsook Kim Harvey, in her book Six Korean Women: The Socialization of Shamans, described Suwon-Mansin as a college educated woman who received her shaman's call after marriage into a traditional Korean family. Should Korean society refuse to change, either Korean men may have a difficult time finding wives or Korea may have the best educated shamans in the world.

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