The History and
society of Medieval Ulster.
Overview
A defining moment in the history of the British Isles, and no
less Ulster, was the Norman (Northern French) invasion of England in
1066. The Norman story begins when the English King Harold fought
and defeated an invasion force of Vikings in the North East of
England and marched the remnants of his army South to Hastings where
he was narrowly defeated by William the Norman who was then crowned
King of England. The Norman's were more advanced in military and
industry but perhaps their most defining feature was the Moat and
Bailey or stone raised castle which they used for defense and to
this day are still prominent on the landscape of the British
Isles. |
The Norman Castle at Carrickfergus
on the County Antrim coast. In the foreground is King William III who
landed at Carrickfergus on his way to victory in battle at the river Boyne
in 1690, centuries after this castle was constructed!.
The
Norman's had controlled England and Wales for two centuries before
they entered the Irish scene in the 13th century. This period in
European and English history is marked by the more advanced feudal
system of government, which had not yet reached Ireland. Ireland was
governed by various kingdoms, Clans and tribes that had struggled to
find a balance of power between each other. The proximity of Ireland
and England is close and interaction throughout their human history
was common. The Normans likely had close ties to Ireland but their
involvement there politically came in the 12th century at the
invitation of an Irish chief to the Norman Earl Strongbow. Strongbow
was hired with his mercenary army of superior quality to the Irish
to bolster the power of the Irish employer. It was this force that
became embroiled in the Irish conflicts that introduced the Normans
or English as a player in the politics of the Island.
The English importance in Ulster was mainly during the
Tudor government, which began in 1485 with the ascendancy of the
Welsh pretender to the throne who became Henry VII of England. It
was the Tudor era that brought much change and made a distinct mark
on the shaping of Ireland and Ulster. By the time Henry VIII, Henry
VII's successor, was crowned, the Tudors governed a small part of
Eastern Ireland around Dublin known as the Pale. This had the
largest population of English origin however there were very small
settlements of English outside this area and a few in Ulster,
particularly around Norman castles on the coastline. The Tudors were
little more than a competing power amongst the many in Ireland at
the time, however Henry VII's dynasty was to usher in the Protestant
Reformation, which had implications in politics for some time after
the initial process. The Reformation, along with the Roman Catholic
reaction and parallel reformations elsewhere, was to cause bitter
divisions within and between the separate Kingdoms of the British
Isles.
Many
parts of Europe in this period were undergoing reformation and the
authority of the Roman church was questioned. The reformation of
Henry VIII at this time however, was regarded initially, less for
the purpose of reform on the point of doctrine, but because of
a personal dispute with the church authority. It also gave
Henry the opportunity to rule his country as he saw fit and not
refer to Rome as the higher religious authority, and offered the
opportunity to boost the royal treasury at the expense of finance
traditionally claimed by Rome and from church property.
In
Ulster church lands were distributed amongst its chiefs much as they
had been sold to the nobles in England. Ulster leaders were offered
the church lands under a system known as; surrender and re-grant,
which was intended to transform the government of the country by the
introduction of feudalism. In Ulster government remained as it had
done for centuries and consisted of small areas under the control of
local leaders. The battles and conflict between these groups had
threatened the Tudor areas, which had in turn become embroiled in
the power struggles. The introduction of feudalism encouraged by the
Tudors was intended to extend their power and influence but also to
offer stability, which in turn would protect the Tudor
lands.
The old Clan or tribal systems relied on custom, and
customs that encouraged dispute, They also placed the subjects of
the leaders under their complete control. Feudalism was little
different but offered a legal and hierarchical structure, which
guaranteed the rights of both the landowner and the tenant and
ensured a structured settlement of power disputes and a balance of
power between the landholders. The landowners however would be no
longer the absolute authority. While they retained autonomy, they
were still subject to the Monarch. This system would effectively
give Henry VIII control over all of Ulster when it was effective.
Persuading the Ulster chiefs to accept the idea was not difficult,
as the benefits they were offered were great enough for them to
accept the idea.
The
replacement of the old system with feudalism: surrender and re-grant
meant that the local leaders would voluntarily donate their lands to
Henry VIII but control them much as they did before except under the
new system with added stability. In accepting this they were offered
status and titles which gave them power throughout Henry's kingdom
(effectively England, Wales and Ireland), and additionally enhanced
prestige abroad. The title it appears were given liberally and most
traveled to London to have them personally bestowed by the King. The
largest leader in Ulster, who was regarded as the most powerful by
the other leaders and the King alike, was Con Bachach O'Neill of the
clan O'Neill. He was created the 1st Earl of Tyrone. Perhaps the
best part of the bargain for the new Lords was their grant of church
lands. That they were benefiting from the misfortune of the Roman
church to which they paid homage, was not in question, as it had not
been with their Roman Catholic counterparts in England when such
valuable property had been placed on the market.
The
transition to feudalism did not run altogether smoothly. The newly
created Lords were happy to receive the benefits they were given but
in the event they did not live up to their part of the bargain. The
old customs and infighting of the Clan system remained and were
played out in full to the expense of development and at the cost of
continued war. The system of clans and the constituency of the
country in general are not easy to analyze, but to do so helps to
understand the make up, culture and rivalries of the land in the
period. |
Armagh Cathedral, the centre of
Ulster during the Medieval period.
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The Constituency of
Ulster
What
Ulster is, i.e. its geographical and political makeup, will be disputed by
historians from period to period and according to different criteria.
Terminology in Ulster today is confused and often there are overlaps and
unclear distinctions, in history there was no exception. The proximity of
the two main British Isles had meant a close interaction and migration of
the respective peoples down through the years. The Scots originally were
from the North of the Irish island and were to some extent early intruders
to the Scottish mainland they made their home. The Scots did not move to
Scotland en masse but are believed to have been largely eliminated from
the north of the island by the 4th century when Gaelic incursions had
mastered the most of the island. The proximity of Scotland and Ulster
however has made modern demarcations along later nationalistic lines
largely irrelevant. The two groups both Gaelic and Scots were prevalent in
both Ulster and Western Scotland throughout the history of those peoples.
To put it in context travel across the short channel between the two lands
was until recently, much easier, and more accessible than inland travel in
either of the two densely wooded regions. In the 16th century the Scots in
Ulster were inadvertently bolstered by disputes between the Gaelic Clans.
Scots mercenary soldiers were often employed and formed the bulk of many
armies. They had the reputation of superior soldiers and were not averse
to the Ulster climate, as other mercenaries may have been.
The Scots
are largely overlooked in conventional histories of Ulster and the ebb and
flow and lack of stability in their presence also ensures an analysis of
them is difficult. Scots influence in Ulster however, had always been
strong as Roman Catholic ecclesiastic records demonstrate. Many bishops
were recorded as having been appointed to the Scottish people at the early
Cathedral, which still stands at Armagh. For periods in the medieval era
Ulster and parts of Scotland were ruled as one and Scottish Kings involved
themselves in Ulster affairs and invasions during the early period.
Understanding the Scottish, Irish and English relations in Ulster are
crucial to understanding the relations and makeup of the country in the
16th century period in question.
The two
largest Gaelic groups in Ulster were the O'Neill's under the Earl of
Tyrone and the O'Donnell's of Tyrconnell; an area closely resembling the
modern county Donegal. There were in addition to this, numerous other
smaller Lords and leaders. The Scots Ulster clans were situated in the
North East of Ulster with the largest; the McDonnell's belonging to North
Antrim. There were some small settlements outside the clan system that
were English in past origin although their numbers were
sparse.
Modern
divisions along nationalistic lines are largely irrelevant when defining
exactly what Ulster is. Modern nationalisms may provide help in analysing
the development of culture and societies of the different groups in
Ulster, but in terms of 16th century politics, or in helping to define a
distinct territorial area, they offer no aid or significance. Clan rule by
its nature, meant power alliances, land struggles and jealousies as
opposed to the relatively recent abstract of nationalistic determination.
In terms of drawing a border around Ulster; some historians have defined
it from the Bronze Age to the medieval period the territory of the Scots.
This analysis may carry a great deal of weight, however the formal
identification of an area known as Ulster was under the administrative
region created by the government of the Tudor Elizabeth I in the early
years of the 17th century.
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The clan system and the traditions of
Ulster
A lack of stable government presented an almost
permanent conflict situation in Ulster; cattle raiding, pillaging and
plunder was common place and were a means to extract power in a situation
with no clear authority. The barbarity that was practiced by the troops of
all the sides was notable, and killing, retribution and retaliation
occurred, as the historian Falls described; 'at a level where human life
was regarded as a lesser value than animals.' There were of course
exceptions as Falls, a military historian, points out. Falls singles out
in particular, the 2nd Earl of Tyrone who was renowned for his humanity,
yet with closer examination he was responsible for a catalogue of brutal
acts. Nor were the Tudors able to prevent these acts. The Queen (Queen
Elizabeth I succeeded her father to the throne after a few years
government by her brother and sister) sent many viceroys (representatives)
to Ireland, whose time was largely taken up with Ulster. None appear to
have had an admirable record, and seemed unable or unwilling to apply law.
More often than not they joined the power struggles resulting in a litany
of stained records of their own. Few lasted very long in their
posts.
One of the
problems of the clan system in Ulster was the practice of tanistry. This
was a system, unlike the popular feudal tradition of primogeniture where
titles and land were passed from father to the eldest son. Tanistry was a
system whereby a clan leader would appoint his successor prior to his
death. This in itself created internal clan conflict and assassinations of
tanists (the appointed), by fellow clansmen or rival clansmen who
preferred a more favourable leader to them, were widespread. To illustrate
this point it can be noted that the most powerful tanist in Ulster: Hugh
O'Neill, who became the 2nd Earl of Tyrone had lived under the protection
of the English garrison for a number of years to ensure he would live to
see his succession.
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Prosperity and social life
It is hard to look at the turmoil of the political
situation and not overlook the admirable prosperity of Ulster. It would be
wrong however to over dramatize prosperity, good as it had been,
especially as the wars of the early 17th century had destroyed the
population of the country and laid waste the landscape. Perhaps this
section would be better described as; the potential prosperity, which may
have been achieved and improved had the land at this time been developed
to contemporary standards.
Ulster
generally was thriving and could be thankful that it was the most
naturally rich part of its island. Even by the standards of the time
however those resources were not fully developed and the land was sparsely
populated, with few permanent settlements. The landscape was thick with
woodland although the destruction of this was well underway by this time.
Cattle farming was the predominant occupation, although practiced by a
policy of cutting woodland for pasture, then moving to new land when its
soil was exhausted. Farming methods were for the time primitive also. The
ploughing method for example, was a means by which the farm tool was fixed
to the cattle's tail. This was regarded as cruel by mainland
contemporaries, in addition it was time consuming and unproductive. The
methods fell well short of the European 16th century equivalent, which was
co-operative and in comparison experimental and developing community based
farming.
Apart from
the few small towns around areas such as Armagh's Cathedral, or
Carrickfergus Norman castle there was no real permanence in settlement.
Some of the more prominent Lords (the now titled Clan leaders) had small
stone castles. The lesser leaders boasted a stone keep for defense. It is
unlikely that they would have lived permanently in the keep however and
would have dwelled in round wooden houses similar to those of their people
constructed with wattle and daub (wooden rods and turf and mud). For the
small population, food, especially
in
peacetime would have been plentiful and the natural richness of the
country particularly in fish endowed even the poorest with the luxury of
Spanish wine to wash down their food. Trade was active with many countries
but in particular Spain, where in return for wine, fish was the main
export, extracted from Ulster's Loughs, which were said to have been
teeming with them. The dress of the people followed much the same pattern
of the rest of the Isles; predominant were tight trousers and thick tops.
Unique among the Ulster Clans however was a thick animal skin draped
impressively around the body as a cloak and was ideal for rough sleeping
in the rough winter climate.
Life was
harsh and primitive although when audited as it has been above, the stone
keeps, the dense wooded landscape, the fish stocked rivers, ample foreign
luxuries and impressive dress codes sound very romantic. Romantic as it
sounds however, the people were not secure and were kept at the behest of
their leader and were the victims of the enemies he accounted. Not only
were they physically assaulted, robbed and in cases exterminated in
numbers, they were responsible for bearing the costs of their leader and
his battles, which was often crippling. Brehon law was a body of custom,
which governed the operation of the Clan system, it carried three main
obligations, which were stifling to the population and were invoked
frequently in the conflict that ensued in Ulster. The first can be summed
up as, coyne: the right of a leader to extract food and rations from his
people for his army and his retinue. The second, livery: The right to
extract forage for horses. The third then is bonaght, and was the right to
extract pay for the military and arbitrary taxation for the leader and the
army.
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Religious divisions
The religion of the Ulster people, be they of
English, Scots or Irish origin was Roman Catholic. The Protestant
reformation in England and the parallel reformation in the Kingdom of
Scotland had little impact on any part of Ireland at this time. The
translation of biblical scripts and service meant little to the Ulster
population who spoke a version of Gaelic at this time and the English
literature was as alien to them as the traditional Latin of the Roman
Catholic Church.
The
attempts to introduce Anglican Protestantism to Ireland was belated and
halfhearted, whilst in contrast the Roman Catholic Church swamped
the country in travelling missionaries and friars. The Roman Catholic
clergy including the archbishop of Armagh and Primate of all Ireland
remained uninhibited in their post although the archbishop had held his
position while preferring to keep his office, as he had done previously,
in the comfort of Rome.
Religion
is crucial to understanding the power struggles that emerged in this
period. The conflicts and power balance politics in Ulster shifted stage
and were gradually usurped by religion to become, albeit more gradually, a
mirror and more crucially a lever, of the much wider religious conflict
occurring across Europe. England's first concern during its reformation
was protection against parallel reformation and counterreformation, which
were taking place on its northern border in Scotland. Scotland had a key
interest in Ulster, not least as a result of its relatively large populace
there, which could have proved a threat if it supported any military
action Scotland may have taken against England. So close were the ties
between the Scots on both sides of the channel, that beacons were lit on
the country coastlines as a communications system between them, which
could have been used to summon reinforcements. It was crucial then for
England to neutralize that threat and for this reason the first plantation
of Ulster was effected by the Tudor government on the Scottish controlled
lands of County's Antrim and Down, effectively excluding the Scots from
Ulster. An Irish and English alliance to neutralize the Scottish in Ulster
however was not new and memories may still have been fresh and strong of
an extermination of the entire population of Rathlin island, which was
inhabited by Scots, in 1553.
Less severe measures were employed on this occasion however and the
Scots were encouraged to move by negotiations between 1568 and 1571. In
order to pacify the country and secure it as an Anglican stronghold,
Elizabeth granted the two Counties to the Earl of Essex who was to settle
the land and develop it. An emphasis was placed on his retaining a
strong Anglican sympathy to neutralize any thoughts of religious
discontent, which would have joined England's enemies and thus threaten
its security by using Ulster as a springboard to achieve that aim. That
plantation like all those that had went before it in the South of Ireland
was a failure and in any case the Scots were back and settled on the land
they had left by 1572.
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The
Ulster Lords rising
The European theatre and the wars of religion were
to shape the next distinctive chapter in the history of Ulster. Key to the
period was the most powerful Ulster Lord: Hugh O'Neill had been created
the 2nd Earl of Tyrone on the death of his grandfather Con Bachach. He had
proved, as was previously mentioned, a humane character in a difficult age
and had closely worked with the English and supplied his troops at their
disposal. He did however an ambitious interest in his position and
favoured those who could assist him to improve it. The opportunity for him
to play a further card in the power game emerged from the wars of
religion. England's reformation had not been viewed lightly by the Roman
Catholic hierarchy and attempts to ensure a successful counterreformation
by the church were expected. Spain was the most powerful Roman Catholic
power in Europe and had been the dominion of Charles V the Holy Roman
Emperor who had exercised the secular muscle of the Roman church. A
nightmare scenario for England would have been a Spanish invasion
consolidating its forces in Ireland and combining as an invasion force
with the Irish Roman Catholics.
England's
fears appeared to be realized when a Spanish invasion fleet was first
spotted from the South Coast. A network of hilltop beacons in Southern
England was organized to relay and pass news of the anticipated invasion
to the ill-prepared army and London. The Spanish Armada with 20 000 troops
did reach Ireland but the weather was against them and the fleet was
entirely destroyed on the ragged coastline of cliffs and jagged rock.
There were few survivors and those that did make it were in no shape to
fight but instead made their way to Scotland and returned to
Spain.
It is
believed to have been around this time that Hugh O'Neill developed the
concept of an entirely Roman Catholic Irish island in which he would play
the dominant part. Partly as a result of this new concept closer links
between Ireland and Spain were established and it was regarded, as only a
matter of time before another invasion force would try again. The Spanish
force came and landed at Kinsale on the South coast of Ireland. The Ulster
Chief O'Donnell set out immediately to meet the force but finding himself
alone in the task set about raiding, plundering and burning the Kilkenny
area in search of spoil. The Spanish in the meantime were besieged in
Kinsale by the Royal army. Hugh O'Neill was not yet committed or sure of
his new ideals and prevaricated for 4 months before moving to meet the
Spanish troops. By this time the Spanish had sent a second fleet, which
landed further west. It suffered much the same fate as the first Armada
and five out of six vessels were lost.
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The failure of the Spanish
Invasion
O'Neill, O'Donnell and the remainder of the
Spanish fleet closed in on the Royal army outside Kinsale, in effect
besieging the those who were besieging the initial Spanish invasion force.
In communication with the besieged Spanish they decided to mount a
simultaneous attack on both sides of the Royal army. Many an Irish plan
was spoiled by drink and treachery wrote Falls but the failure of this
attack on the fledging Royal army must be a classic. The story goes that
O'Donnell's camp was short of alcoholic drink on night before the attack
and a messenger was sent to the Royal camp to procure some. As O'Donnell's
troops had been given to serve in the Royal army and the officers in both
armies had friendships and contacts, the drink was duly given. In thankful
gratitude the benevolent officer in the Royal army was notified of the
impending attack as a means of payment. The Royal army prepared for the
attack, but none came, the Spaniards waited patiently but the armies of
Tyrone and O'Donnell had become divided and lost on their way to the
battlefield. The Royal army seizing the situation caught both unawares,
destroyed their armies and captured their troops.The Lords themselves were
captured and returned to London to surrender to the new King; James VI of
England. The new King had been James I of Scotland but he had in addition
to the Scottish throne inherited the throne of England also. His reign is
noted as the uniting of both the Kingdoms of; Scotland and England, Wales
and Ireland, and the beginning of government by the house of Stuart. In a
shock move the Ulster Lords were not humiliated in their surrender but
were received instead in the spirit of friendship and were re-granted
their lands and titles in the same manner they had before the
revolt.
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The
Flight of the Earls
The Lords did not return
immediately to Ulster, Tyrone in particular stayed for some time at the
Royal Palace of Hampton Court. When they did return however it was to a
pitiful scene. The pressure and the cost of the war had created widespread
famine. The country was desolate and was depopulated as most had moved
South in search of food. Fynes Moryson, who accounts one incident, of
older women who enticed children to their company and ate of their flesh,
captured the desperation of the situation. The grim situation did little
to entice the Lords back to their homes. In any case the political
situation itself had changed, O’Donnell had found himself upstaged by a
rival Neill Garve who had consolidated himself in O'Donnell’s absence.
Thoughts of revolt still burned in the Lords minds however and while
Tyrone stayed at Hampton court in England it was recorded how he developed
regular secret meetings with Roman Catholic revolutionaries and in
particular one notorious Priest of the Society of Jesus. Any thoughts of
revolt given the state of Ulster at the time must have seemed impossible
or at least impractical but the notion still appears to have rested at
least in Tyrone’s mind. The impracticability of conflict at this time is
seen in Ulster’s recorded peacefulness, the most peaceful state it had
been for some time according to the memories of contemporaries. Despite
their own impotency for conflict at the time however some of the Ulster
Lords as has already been noted in the conspiracy liaisons of Tyrone were
looking to other quarters to effect their revolt. A selection of the
Ulster Lords including Tyrone and Tyrconnell (formerly O’Donnell) who
still held a desire for revolt, left Lough Swilly in Tyrconnell and sailed
to Spain in an attempt to encourage a further Spanish invasion and to
pledge their support for it. They were not welcomed as they had wished
however and traveled across Europe courting support from many Roman
Catholic powers on mainland Europe. In the final event they were believed
to have settled in Rome, but they had in the meantime left Ulster
and abandoned the lands they had laid claim to!
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