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       The country of Turkey occupies a position between Europe and Asia. This geographical location has had a major influence on the history of Turkey and on the politics and culture of its people. At one time Turkey was the heart of the large Ottoman Empire that contained much of the Middle East, North Africa, and southeastern Europe.
       Since World War I, Turkey has played a more modest, but still significant, role in international politics. Turkey controls one of the most vital seaways in Europe, the two sets of narrow straits that link the Black Sea with the Mediterranean.
       Land: Turkey is about 300,000 square miles (780,000 square kilometers) in area. About 97 percent of this area lies in Asia and about 3 percent in Europe. The Asian part of the country is mainly a long peninsula, bounded on the north by the Black Sea and on the south by the Mediterranean. In the southeast it borders Syria and Iraq, in the east Iran, and in the northeast Georgia and Armenia. The European part of Turkey borders Greece and Bulgaria. Turkey is traditionally divided into two main provinces.
       Turkey in Asia is known as Anatolia, or Asia Minor, while Turkey in Europe is called Trakya, or Thrace. Most of Anatolia consists of a large plateau, or raised flat area. This Anatolian Plateau rises from about 2,000 feet (600 meters) in the west to more than 6,500 feet (1,800 meters) in the east. It is bounded on the north by the Pontic Mountains,which stretch along the Black Sea coast, and in the south by the higher ranges of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus Mountains. The latter reach their highest point on Erciyas Dai at 12,851 feet (3,917 meters). The plateau slopes in the west to the Aegean Sea and becomes a region of small hills and valleys.
       In the east the Pontic and Taurus mountains meet in a complex group of mountain ranges that contain the highest mountain in Turkey, Mount Ararat, at 16,853 feet (5,137 meters). Apart from the areas of flat land on top of the plateau and along the coasts, there are few extensive lowlands. The coast of the Black Sea has only a narrow plain. In the south the Mediterranean coastal plain is wider in places, notably along the Gulf of Antalya and the Gulf of Iskenderun. The latter, known as the Cilician Plain, is reached from the plateau by a pass through the Taurus Mountains called the Cilician Gates. In the west there are scattered areas of lowlands intermixed with hills. Although there are no active volcanoes in Turkey, much of the country is geologically unstable, and severe earthquakes have occurred.
        The longest river is the Kizilirmak. It is 734 miles (1,181 kilometers) long and flows into the Black Sea, as do the Sakarya and the Yeil Irmak. The Gediz and Menderes rivers flow westward to the Aegean Sea, and the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers flow southward into the Gulf of Iskenderun. The two great rivers of Iraq, the Tigris and the Euphrates, both begin in the heart of eastern Turkey and flow to the southern border. Turkish rivers are often low in summer and of little use for navigation. Some have been dammed to provide water for irrigation. In the center of the plateau there is a large salt lake, Tuz Lake, which dries up in summer. There are several other lakes, of which Lake Van, near the eastern border, is the largest.
        Turkey in Europe is bounded on the north and south by mountain ranges. Between these two ranges lies the valley of the Ergene River. The Maritsa River forms part of the boundary between Turkey and Bulgaria. The European and Asian parts of Turkey are separated by the two straits known as the Bosporus in the north and the Dardanelles in the south. Between the two lies the Sea of Marmara.
       Turkey has a variety of mineral resources. The most important deposits are located along the lower slopes of the Pontic and Taurus mountains. High-quality coal is mainly found in the region near Zonguldak on the western Black Sea coast. Lignite, an inferior type of coal, is found in Turkey in Europe and in western Anatolia. It is mainly used to produce electric power. Small amounts of petroleum are produced in Turkey. Some comes from southeastern Anatolia near Adana, but the main oilfields are in the east along the Tigris River.
        Turkey is particularly rich in metallic minerals such as iron ore, chrome, copper, lead, zinc, and manganese. Most of the iron ore comes from central Anatolia and is of good quality. Turkey is one of the world's largest producers of boron, which is used in the chemical industry. It is found in western Anatolia. Other minerals of importance are antimony, magnesite, bauxite, mercury, sulfur, tungsten, and asbestos. There are several hydroelectric power stations on the major rivers, of which the largest is the Keban Dam on the Euphrates. More than half of the electricity produced in Turkey comes from water power.

       Climate, Vegetation, and Animal Life:
       AThe climate:The climate of Turkey is more extreme than its southern location would suggest. This is because of the relatively high altitude of much of the country. The plateau has cold winters, often accompanied by high winds. In January Ankara in the west has an average temperature of 31°F (-1° C) while Erzurum in the east, 6,400 feet (1,950 meters) above sea level, has a temperature of 15° F (-9° C). In summer the two places have average temperatures of 73° F (23° C) and 65° F (18° C), respectively.
       Most of the plateau is dry throughout the year, as the surrounding mountains prevent moisture from the seas from reaching the interior. The average annual precipitation varies from 10 inches (25 centimeters) in the west to more than 20 inches (50 centimeters) in the more mountainous east. In winter snow may lie for three or four months. In the summer the heat in the interior of the plateau can often be extreme and is accompanied by drought.
        The coastal regions in general have a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild,rainy winters. Istanbul has average temperatures of 42° F (6° C) in January and 75° F (24° C) in July, as does Samsun on the Black Sea coast. Both places have about 29 inches (74 centimeters) of precipitation in the year, much of it in winter. The highest levels of precipitation--100 inches (254 centimeters) a year--are found along the Black Sea coast close to the Georgian border.
       The vegetation: The vegetation of Turkey is limited. In general, much of the country is a region of treeless, barren grasslands and bare hills. The plateau consists mainly of grass. In the spring, flowers such as crocuses and tulips bloom for a short period. The coastal regions have a typically Mediterranean vegetation. It consists of trees such as pines, oaks, cedars, junipers, and chestnuts except where cutting, burning, and grazing have prevented tree growth. Here, in place of trees, scrub vegetation known as maquis appears. The only lowland region with dense forest is the eastern Black Sea coast where precipitation is high.
        The soils of Turkey vary widely in type. Much of the country is covered with stony acidic soils that are poor for farming. In hilly areas that have been grazed by livestock, there is serious soil erosion. In the coastal regions a typical Mediterranean soil known as terra rossa is found. It is formed from limestone and is good for farming. In the valleys and plains there are areas of rich alluvial soils, or those deposited by running water.
        Animal life: Animal life in Turkey is widely varied. In the western and southern areas with a Mediterranean climate, such animals as deer, wild goats, lynxes, wildcats, bears, and occasionally leopards are found. In the drier areas of the plateau and the east, gazelles, hyenas, ground squirrels, jerboas, hares, and foxes occur. Wolves, jackals, badgers, and otters are found throughout the country, but many species are located mainly in isolated and wooded regions. Birds include owls, partridges, quail, buzzards, storks, vultures, and eagles. Among a variety of snakes the only poisonous one is the viper.
        People and Culture: The population of Turkey is more than 50 million. The earliest known inhabitants were the Hittites, who probably came from Central Asia. Although the present-day Turks are proud of their descent from the Hittites, they are in fact a mixture of other peoples who entered the country at various times such as Persians, Celts, Romans, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks. The Seljuk Turks came from Central Asia, where they had adopted the Muslim faith, and entered Asia Minor in the 11th century. They intermarried with the inhabitants of their conquered territories and lost the racial features of the Central Asian Turkic peoples.
       Most Turks have fair skins and dark hair, similar to the other peoples of the eastern Mediterranean region. About 90 percent of the population is made up of Turks. Other minority groups are much smaller and include Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, and Jews. About 99 percent of the population is Muslim, the remainder being Christian or Jewish. Turkey differs from many other Muslim countries because Atatürk, the national leader from 1923 to 1938, attempted to reduce the influence of the religion of Islam in Turkey. He abolished Islamic law and removed the power of the religious leaders. Islam was declared no longer to be the state religion. About 44 percent of the population lives in cities and towns. The largest city is Istanbul with nearly 3 million inhabitants. Formerly known as Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, Istanbul contains many historic buildings of the Christian and Muslim periods. It is situated on the shore of the Bosporus in Europe. Ankara, with nearly 2 million inhabitants, has been the capital of Turkey since 1923. It is located on the western plateau. Ankara was selected as the capital instead of Istanbul because its location was more secure from attack from abroad. Other major cities are Izmir, the major port of Asia Minor, and Adana, on the Cilician Plain.
       Turkish literature: reflects both Middle Eastern and European influences. Until the 19th century the main influence was the religion of Islam, and most writers and poets followed the patterns of Persian and Arabic literatures. In the 1850s, however, writers began to imitate European forms of the novel and poetry. Notable writers of this period were Halid Uakligil and Hüseyin Gürpinar and the poet Tevfik Fikret. Rising nationalism was reflected in the works of Ziya Gökalp and Reat Güntekin. After World War II the trends toward a more original native Turkish literature continued, and such writers as Kemal Tahir and Orhan Kemal described village life in realistic terms. Popular present-day writers include Yaar Kemal, whose works have been translated into English and other languages, Mahmut Makal, and the woman writer Nehziye Meriç. Because of the Muslim ban on the use of the human figure in art, there was little development of painting and sculpture in Turkey until 1923, when the ban was removed. There is virtually no interest in modern art and little market for it--even among educated people. Folk and decorative arts are the most popular forms. Oriental carpets, vases, pottery, and copper articles are all used to decorate the home.
        Turkish music: reflects its Middle Eastern origin and has strong Arabic and Persian influences. Folk music and folk themes are still popular, though Western influenced music-especially for dancing and in places of entertainment-has appeared in recent years.
       Children in Turkey must attend school between the ages of 7 and 12. After three years at a secondary school, they may go to a lycée, which prepares them for the university. There are also technical, agricultural, and commercial secondary schools. Education at state schools is free. There are 27 universities, of which nine were founded in 1982 alone. The oldest and the largest is the University of Istanbul. There are four universities each in Istanbul and in Ankara and two in Izmir. Among other universities are those in Erzurum, Adana, Antalya, Edirne, Mugla, Konya, Bursa, Eskisehir and Trabzon.
       The Latin alphabet was introduced in place of the Arabic alphabet in 1928, which made the writing of Turkish easier. But about 38 percent of the population--mainly in the rural areas--is still unable to read or write.

       Economy,Transportation, and Communication
       Economy:Farming is the most important branch of the economy and employs about 60 percent of the working population. About 37 percent of the land area is suitable for cultivation and another 12 percent for livestock grazing. Most of the best farming land is found on the coastal plains and the river valleys, while much of the plateau and the mountain regions are suitable only for grazing.
        Much of the cultivated land is used to grow grain. The most important grain crop by far is wheat. Barley is grown in the drier areas, and a little rye, corn, and rice are also cultivated. Because there is not much rain, irrigation is necessary for farming in many parts of the country. The government has invested in the construction of dams, reservoirs, and canals for this purpose.
        The most important industrial crop is cotton. It is the single largest export of the country by value and also provides raw material for the country's textile industry. It is grown mainly on the Cilician Plain. Tobacco is also a major export crop, grown mainly in the southwest and on the Black Sea coast.Sugar beets are grown in order to reduce the amount of sugar imported from abroad.
       Along with citrus fruits and figs, Turkey is a major producer and exporter of sultana raisins and hazelnuts, which grow on the Black Sea coast. Tea is grown in the areas of high rainfall on the eastern Black Sea coast. At one time the opium poppy formed an important source of revenue for the farmers, but now production is restricted. Because of the large areas of dry grasslands and mountains that are unsuitable for crops, livestock herding is an important branch of Turkish agriculture. Sheep and goats are the main livestock. About one quarter of the goats are of the Angora variety that produces mohair. Cattle, oxen, and water buffaloes are also kept. Much of the livestock is of poor quality and does not produce much milk or meat. Because of the destruction of much of Turkey's forest by overgrazing and cutting, the forests are of little economic importance. In spite of the fact that the government owns all the forests, little has been done either to curb their misuse or to develop a well-managed forest industry.
       The seas around Turkey contain many fishes of different species, but the fishing industry is only of minor importance. There is a small canning industry. The most common fishes caught are mackerel, anchovies, and tuna. In recent years Turkey has made considerable progress in the development of tourism. The climate of the Mediterranean coast and its beaches are major attractions along with the historic buildings and museums of Istanbul. About half the tourists come from Western Europe.
       Industry is becoming an increasingly important branch of the economy. Turkish industrial development has been affected by the lack of foreign investment, the result of nationalism and a distrust of foreign investors. The state controls certain key industries such as mining, power, iron and steel, and transportation.
       The most important industry is food and tobacco processing, which includes fruit canning, sugar refining, flour milling, and cigarette manufacturing. The second largest is the cotton and wool textile industry.
       Turkey has a state-owned iron and steel industry with three major plants located at Karabük and Ereli--both near the coalfields at Zonguldak--and at Iskenderun on the southeastern coast. Most of the steel produced goes to the engineering industry, which has developed rapidly in recent years aided by the government. A variety of products are manufactured such as machine tools, small engines, industrial equipment, and household appliances. There is also a small production of tractors, trucks, and automobiles.There are chemical plants located close to the Zonguldak coalfields and a petrochemical plant at Izmit in the northwest. Izmit is also the site of a petroleum refinery and an aluminum plant.
       Transportation: Because of rugged terrain and long distances, it has been difficult to develop an effective transportation system. The 5,400 miles (8,700 kilometers) of railroad are still not enough for a country of Turkey's size but nevertheless form the best transportation network in the country. The major cities are linked by highways, but most villages have no good roads in or around them.
       Sea transportation is important for this country with its long coastline. The main port is Istanbul, which handles about two thirds of Turkey's trade. Other smaller ports--such as Izmir, Mersin,Samsun, and Trabzon--handle both local and foreign trade.
       The Turkish national airline is the government-owned Türk Hava Yollari, or Turkish Airlines, which offers domestic flights as well as flights to several European and Middle Eastern countries. Both Istanbul, Antalya, Dalaman,Izmir and Ankara have international airports. Communication: Television and radio are government monopolies. The telephone and telegraph services are also government-controlled.
       Government In recent years the governmental system of Turkey has undergone some drastic changes. Since becoming a republic in 1923, Turkey had been governed through a parliamentary system consisting of a Grand National Assembly with a lower house (National Assembly) and an upper house (Republican Senate). Because of political and social unrest and violence in the country, a military regime took over the government and dissolved the Grand National Assembly in 1980. The country was run by a National Security Council consisting of four commanders of the armed forces. In 1981 a Consultative Assembly was established, and in the following year a new constitution was adopted. General Kenan Evren was elected at the same time as president for a seven-year term. There is a one-chamber Grand National Assembly with 550 members elected every five years. In 1983 elections were held, and the military leadership returned control to a civilian government. The largest parties in parliament are the Motherland party, which holds most seats, the Populist party, and the True Path party.

       History: During the 11th century, bands of Turkish horsemen invaded western Asia from Turkestan. They adopted the religion of Islam, but they plundered the Muslim lands in their path. The strongest of these tribes was the Seljuks. They took their name from an early sultan, or chieftain.
       The Seljuks established a small state in Anatolia called the sultanate of Rome. From here they attacked both the Arabs in Syria and Palestine and the Christians of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor. In 1071 they defeated the army of the Byzantine emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert and took him prisoner. In the same year they conquered Jerusalem and with it the Holy Land. The Byzantines still held most of Asia Minor and their capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). They appealed for help to the pope in Rome, and for two centuries the Christians of Europe fought the Turks in seven Crusades. After the last Crusade the Seljuks still held their land. Now, however, they were attacked by new invaders from Turkestan.
       Ottoman Empire: An outstanding leader among the newcomers was Othman I, or Osman I, who was born in 1258 and died in 1326. He founded the dynasty of Turkish rulers called after him Osmanli, meaning "sons of Osman." In time the English transformed the name to Ottoman. Othman's son Orkhan (ruled 1326-59) pushed his conquests to the Aegean coast. By peaceful barter he gained a foothold on the European side of the Dardanelles at Gallipoli. He built his army by exacting a tribute of children from his Christian subjects. The strongest and brightest boys were taken from their parents, reared in the Muslim faith, and trained for military or government service. From these slaves Orkhan filled the ranks of his infantry, the Janizaries (also spelled Janissaries). His successors continued this practice. In later centuries no force in Europe could match this hard and ruthless corps.
        Orkhan's son Murad I (ruled 1359-89) conquered Thrace and moved his capital to Adrianople. Mohammed II (ruled 1451-81) captured Constantinople in 1453 and made it the capital. During Selim's reign from 1512 to 1520, the Ottomans moved eastward and southward. At Mecca in Arabia, the shrine of the Muslim world, Selim took the title caliph--ruler of all Muslims. Henceforth the Turkish sultan was the spiritual head of the entire Muslim world.
        Under Süleyman I the Magnificent (ruled 1520-66) the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent, but the sultans who followed Süleyman were weak and dissolute. In 1571 the combined fleets of Venice, Spain, and the Papal States defeated the Turks in the great naval battle of Lepanto off the coast of Greece. This victory dispelled the legend of the "invincible Turk." Russia annexed the Crimea in 1783. In 1821 Greece began its long fight for freedom. The Janizaries revolted in 1826, and the sultan abolished the famous corps after slaying thousands. Russia waged war against the Turks in 1806 and again in 1828 and 1829, winning the Caucasus and the northeastern coast of the Black Sea. Russia, now master of the Black Sea, was determined to control its outlet. Great Britain, France, and Sardinia helped Turkey in the Crimean War of 1854 to 1856 and blocked Russia. The Russo-Turkish war of 1877 and 1878 brought Russia almost to Constantinople. Turkey was forced to sign the harsh Treaty of San Stefano, which would have ended its rule in Europe. The Western powers, however, quickly called the Congress of Berlin in 1878 and once more revived the failing Ottoman Empire.
        By the end of the 19th century, the sultan's government was tottering. To get money, the sultan gave special rights to foreigners in Turkey--the so-called capitulations. Railways, mines, banks, and ports fell into the hands of foreign capitalists.
        Sultan Abdülhamid II (ruled 1876-1909) developed strong ties with Germany. German engineers began work on a railway across Turkey that was to link Berlin with Baghdad and the Persian Gulf. Turkey sided with Germany in World War I and succeeded in holding the straits and Constantinople. But in the end Turkey was defeated. In 1920 the sultan's representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres, which would have confined Turkey to the Anatolian Plateau. The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts were assigned to Greece and Italy.
        Armenia was to be independent.
       Turkish Republic under Atatürk.
        Resentment flamed high in Turkey. A new government sprang up at Ankara in Anatolia, led by the dynamic Mustafa Kemal, an army officer. Kemal first subjugated Armenia, then turned westward and drove the Greek forces from Smyrna. The sultan, Mohammed VI, fled from Constantinople. In July 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne repudiated the Treaty of Sèvres. On Oct. 29, 1923, Turkey was proclaimed a republic with Kemal as president. Kemal in 1924 gave Turkey a liberal democratic constitution.
        The new government was intensely nationalistic. Kemal uprooted 1,300,000 Greeks who lived in Asia Minor and shipped them to Greece. At the same time some 353,000 Muslims who lived in Macedonia were admitted to Turkey. The large Armenian population had already been reduced by the massacres of 1915.
        Kemal abolished the office of caliph, suppressed religious orders, and closed religious schools and law courts. He forbade men to wear the fez. He encouraged women to cast off their face veils, gave them equal rights before the law, and made polygamy illegal. He abolished titles of nobility--pasha, bey, and effendi--and ordered Turks to take family names, which they had not had before. For himself he chose the name Atatürk, meaning "father of the Turks".
        Atatürk entered into friendly relations with the Soviet Union and established state socialism. In 1934 he launched a five-year development plan with machines and financial aid from the Soviets. He enforced a strict ban, however, on the Communist party. When he died in 1938, the assembly elected his prime minister and friend, Ismet Inönü, president.
        After Atatürk: Ismet Inönü made a defense pact with Britain and France when World War II broke out in 1939, but it was not implemented because of Germany's early victories. The 1936 Montreux Convention had restored to Turkey the right to fortify the Dardanelles, and Turkey closed the straits to Allied shipping during the war. In February 1945, after Germany's defeat seemed assured, Turkey entered World War II on the side of the Allies.
        The most notable change after the war was the liberalization of political life. A growing class of professional and business people demanded more freedom. The government allowed new political parties to form, extended the right to vote, and allowed direct elections. In 1946 the Democrat party was founded from a split in Atatürk's Republican People's party. It gathered immediate support and by 1950 won a majority in the assembly. Adnan Menderes became prime minister, the first time this office surpassed the presidency in importance.
        Turkey's troops strongly supported the United Nations forces in the Korean War, and the country joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952. The new government had great success the first few years, but as economic problems developed it became increasingly repressive. The army staged an almost bloodless takeover of the government in 1960, and a 38-member committee ran the country. Menderes and two other ministers were executed.
        A new constitution was adopted in 1961, and the military withdrew from direct political control. It began a period of political moderation. The Democrat political prisoners were released, new labor legislation promoted a great expansion of trade unions, and workers became more active in politics. The new Justice party drew its main support from the same elements that had supported the Democrats, and it had a similar philosophy. It won the election of 1965, and Süleyman Demirel became prime minister. He headed a weak government, but he was skillful in balancing the increasingly radical left and a newly emerging radical right as well as holding his party to a moderate line. By the late 1960s Demirel's government was unable to deal with increasing disorders, and in 1971 the army called for his resignation.
        Short-lived coalition governments were in power for the next decade. Inflation, unemployment, political violence, and the imposition of martial law led to another military takeover in 1980 and a new constitution in 1982. Turgut Ozal, founder of the Motherland party, was elected prime minister in 1983 and 1987 and president in 1989. Martial law was lifted by 1987. Süleyman Demirel was elected to the presidency after Ozal died in April 1993. In June 1993 Tansu Ciller of the True Path party became the country's first female prime minister.
        The outlawed Kurdish Workers' party in southeastern Turkey, which was responsible for more than 500 deaths in the late 1980s, continued its campaign of violence into the 1990s. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, precipitating a crisis in the Persian Gulf, Turkey complied with United Nations sanctions against Iraq and closed the pipeline that carried Iraqi oil to the Mediterranean coast. Later, Turkey sent troops to fight against Iraq.
       The Cyprus question: In the 1950s the Greek Cypriots demanded independence from Great Britain and union with Greece. This led to strife with the Turkish Cypriots, who looked to Turkey for help. Tension between Turkey and Greece resulted, which was eased somewhat by the granting of independence to Cyprus in 1959. Disputes between Turkish and Greek Cypriots after independence led to civil war in 1963, bringing Turkey and Greece themselves to the brink of war. A United Nations peacekeeping force helped control the conflict until Archbishop Makarios, the Greek president of Cyprus, was forced out in mid-1974. Turkish troops then occupied the northern part of the island. The Turkish-occupied zone declared independence in 1983, an action condemned by the United Nations. Relations with Greece improved in 1988 following a dispute over petroleum rights in the Aegean Sea in 1987.


       Author Credit: This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing. FURTHER READING FOR TURKEY Salim, Cigdem, ed. Turkey--Political, Social, and Economic Challenges in the 1990s (Brill, 1995). Brosnahan, Tom. Turkey: A Travel Survival Guide, 4th ed. (Lonely Planet, 1993). Fodor's Turkey (Fodor's Travel Publications, 1994). Heper, Metin. Historical Dictionary of Turkey (Scarecrow, 1994). Mango, Andrew. Turkey: The Challenge of a New Role (Greenwood, 1994). Spencer, William. The Land and People of Turkey (Harper, 1990).