May 31 Throughout the 1950s many Jews and other victims of the Holocaust dedicated their work to finding Eichmann and other Nazi officials. In 1960, the Mossad (Israeli Secret Service) learned that Eichmann was in Argentina and began an effort to locate his exact whereabouts when it was confirmed that Ricardo Klement was, in fact, Adolf Eichmann. The Israeli government then sponsored an effort to kidnap Eichmann and bring him to Jerusalem for trial as a war criminal. He was kidnapped by a team of Israeli Mossad agents on May 11, 1960, as part of a covert operation. He was flown aboard an El Al jet from Argentina to Israel on May 21, 1960. For some time the Israeli government denied involvement in Eichmann's capture, claiming that he had been taken by Jewish volunteers. Eventually, however, the pretense was dropped. Isser Harel, head of the Mossad at the time of the operation, wrote a book about Eichmann's capture entitled The House on Garibaldi Street; some years later a member of the capture team, Peter Malkin, authored Eichmann in my Hands, a book that contains fascinating insights into Eichmann's character and motivations but whose veracity has been attacked. His trial in front of an Israeli court in Jerusalem started on February 11, 1961. He was indicted on 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization. As part of Israeli criminal procedure, his trial was presided over by three judges instead of a jury. Gideon Hausner, the Israeli attorney general, personally acted as chief prosecutor. The trial caused huge international controversy as well as an international sensation. The Israeli government deliberately fueled the sensation by allowing news programs all over the world to broadcast the trial live without any restrictions. Television viewers saw a nondescript man sitting in a bulletproof glass booth while witnesses, including many Holocaust survivors, testified against him and his role in transporting victims to the extermination camps. During the whole trial, Eichmann insisted that he was only "following orders." Convicted on all counts, Eichmann was sentenced to death on December 15, 1961, and was hanged a few minutes after midnight on June 1, 1962, at Ramla prison, the only civil execution ever carried out in Israel. His body was cremated and ashes scattered at sea, so that no nation would serve as Adolf Eichmann's final resting place."
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1678 Lady Godiva rides naked through Coventry, England. "...Reduce taxes in order to foster the peasants' appreciation of silly pictures? Was she mad? No waterworks? There would be no tax reduction; as a matter of fact, Leofric added a new tax on pictures, which only had to be paid by his wife since she was the only person who had any, except for the church which was exempt. Their argument became a classic war of wills, taking the equally classic form of nagging versus stone-walling. However, at very long last, since his wife would not give up and was driving him to distraction and worse, Leofric capitulated, but, regarding it all as something of a sport, attached an interesting condition to his offer to allow some reduction in taxation. The ancient Greeks, he pointed out, and those coarser Romans as well, viewed the nude human body as one of the highest expressions of the perfection of Nature. Nudity was not seen as erotic in any sense, but as purity, and a celebration of the wonderful form of a sensuous being displayed in all its marvelous glory for the betterment and appreciation of those enlightened enough to consider this aesthetic. To present a well formed nude body as an object of great beauty, even art, would be to offer a lesson of inestimable value to the simple peasants of Coventry, whose experiences and perceptions had never been enlightened to appreciate such perfection. If Lady Godiva truly believed in the crusade she was promoting, then she should lead it herself, and offer to the citizens of Coventry an example of the glorious beauty to be understood by careful consideration of a perfect nude human body. There could be no shame in this, it would be the most gross error to consider it as such. Was she ashamed of the wonders of God's work? Besides, with all that horse-back riding, and similar, she had lost some weight and looked pretty good. Therefore, Leofric proclaimed that if Lady Godiva would ride her horse through the crowded market-place of Coventry, in the full light of mid-day, clothed in only that which God had given her, as an example of the perfection of God's work and as an expression of the highest possible aesthetic -- she had been spreading pictures of herself around anyway -- then he would reduce taxes on the populace, lifting from them the burden Godiva perceived, and erasing from himself any further doubt he might harbor of the sincerity of Godiva's convictions. To Leofric's absolute surprise, she agreed, once she had ensured that she actually had his "permission" to do so. Taken aback by his wife's courage and certainty in her purposes Leofric, somewhat overwhelmed, then stated that he fully accepted the truth of Lady Godiva's belief in the merits of her cause, and so in response, on completion of her ride he would not just reduce taxes, but would remove all of them -- save those tolls on horses which were already in place before he assumed his office, and which were necessary for basic needs of the city. A day was chosen for the event, and while no particular effort had been expended to publicize the ride, talk of it had spread in whispers throughout the whole of Coventry. Not wishing to reveal that this concealed discussion had taken place, and since people were curious about all aspects of the affair and did not want to interrupt it, the marketplace's business proceeded as it might have done on any other less interesting Thursday in late August. As noon approached, so did Lady Godiva. She was not alone, but was accompanied by two female aides also on horseback, but normally clothed; one rode on each side and slightly to the rear. Three horses walking on the cobbles in formation at a measured gait did not have the sound of the usual traffic and bustle, and so -- since all were secretly and eagerly anticipating the event -- her appearance was announced clearly to everyone. She sat straight and properly in the saddle with a look of composure on her face; relaxed, confident, unashamed. Her hair was done in two large braids which were curled snugly at the back of her head, one on each side; she wore no jewelry or other adornment. People looked at her and saw that she was not merely naked, or nude; rather she was in a higher state of presentation -- being a correct and elevated quality of her composure, and resulting also from the people's appraisal, appreciation, and consideration beyond simple voyeurism. To all present this was an experience like no other in their lives. The only images of people unclothed they had ever seen were in the church: Adam and Eve, and the crucified Christ. This was a lady, simple and normal with a body like that of every other woman present, a human, a creature of God's earth. Though he half meant it as a joke, Leofric's words rang true: here was a celebration of being in its perfection..."
1669 Due to failing eyesight, the British admiralty official and diarist Samuel Pepys discontinues writing his diary.
1790 The first Copyright Act is signed by President George Washington. The act protects authorship rights over books, maps and other written material. Rights of copy are only granted to US citizens, a mandate that is kept in place for more than a century.
1793 French Revolution: The Reign of Terror, three days of insurrection and revolt, begins. Thousands will go to the guillotine, and the Girondists will be expelled from the Convention.
1819 Birth: Walt Whitman, poet, in West Hill, New York. "Whitman is considered to be one of the United States' greatest poets. Born near Long Island, he lived in New York for a time, and many of his poems celebrate the city and its' inhabitants. He worked as a writer, printer, editor, teacher, and even as a hospital aide during the Civil War. He was deeply interested in politics and examining democracy as a practice and an ideal. He traveled throughout the US and Canada. Some of his best-known works are his book of poems, Leaves of Grass (1855) and such individual poems as "Oh Captain! My Captain!" and "Song of the Open Road."Though dead before the start of the Spanish-American War, some of Whitman's writings reflect the national confidence and pride which led to enthusiasm for the war."
1821 The Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary In Baltimore becomes the first Catholic cathedral to be dedicated in the United States.
1859 Big Ben, the bell in the clock tower of the Houses Of Parliament in London, first begins recording the passage of time.
1870 E.J. DeSemdt of New York City patents asphalt pavement.
1879 The first electric railway opens at the Berlin Trades Exposition.
1889 Johnstown Disaster: In a river valley in central Pennsylvania, heavy rain and a neglected dam lead to a catastrophe in which 2,209 people die and a prosperous city, Johnstown, is nearly wiped off the face of the earth. Johnstown, located at the confluence of the Little Conemaugh River and Stony Creek, is 14 miles downstream from Lake Conemaugh. The lake is held back by the South Fork Dam, a large earth-fill dam in dire need of repairs. When several days of heavy rain strike the area in late May 1889, the neglected dam is under tremendous pressure from the swollen waters of Lake Conemaugh. The dam begins to disintegrate, and on this day the lake's water level passes over the top. Realizing that the dam's collapse is imminent, officials send riders down the valley to evacuate area residents. However, flooding is a familiar occurrence in the valley, and few Johnstown residents heed the riders' desperate warnings. Most just take the same simple precautions they did when Little Conemaugh River flooded: They move their belongings to the second story of their homes and settle down to wait out the storm. At 3.10pm, the South Fork Dam washes away, drowning several laborers who are struggling to maintain it and 20 million tons of water go roaring down the valley toward Johnstown. The deluge sweeps through the communities of South Fork, Mineral Point, Woodvale, and East Conemaugh, accumulating debris, including rocks, trees, houses, barns, railroad cars, animals, and people, both dead and alive. By the time it reaches Johnstown, at 4:07pm, the flood appears as a rolling hill of debris more than 30 feet high and nearly half a mile wide. In a terrible swoop, the northern half of the city is swept away, sending some 1,500 demolished Johnstown buildings tumbling down with the roaring torrent. It takes 10 minutes for the waters of Lake Conemaugh to pass through Johnstown, and 2,000 people are drowned or crushed in the torrent. A few survivors are washed up along with numerous corpses several miles down the valley. At the old Stone Bridge in Johnstown, debris piles 40 feet high catches fire, and some 80 huddled survivors of the flood perish in the flames. A total of 2,209 lose their lives as a result of this disaster. (Bradley)
1892 Birth: Gregor Strasser. "An early leader of the German National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP) or Nazi Party, Strasser was eventually murdered on Party Leader Adolf Hitler's orders, as part of Hitler's consolidation of power. Born to a Catholic family in Geisenfeld, (Upper Bavaria), he was educated and employed as a pharmacist. When World War I broke out he served his country as a First Lieutenant and won the Iron Cross for bravery, as did many who would after the war become members of the Nazi party. Strasser was a member of the Freikorps, until he joined the NSDAP and became a leading member of the Sturm Abteilung (SA) (Stormtroopers). He took part in the Beer Hall Putsch of November 8 and 9, 1923 and was imprisoned. In May of 1924 after one and one half years he was released due to having been elected to the Reichstag. During Adolf Hitler's imprisonment, he briefly led the party. Strasser is considered among the discoverers and promoters of Heinrich Himmler. In 1925 he was appointed the party leader in northern Germany where he created the Stormtroopers or SA. Together with his brother Otto Strasser he took control of the National Socialist Arbeiter Zeitung, of which Hitler was later known to have disapproved. Many contemporary German sources see Otto and Gregor Strasser as having been advocates of social-democracy, and opponents of Nationalism within the party. Strasser was a committed socialist and social radical as was Ernst Röhm. Strasser saw a need to redistribute wealth in Germany and like Röhm, opposed Hitler's policy of catering to the country's major industrialists such as Emil Kirdorf, although it should be noted that he received no small amount of personal financial assistance from industrial "contacts" and various "gentleman clubs". His outspoken views led Kirdorf and others to reject the party for a time, causing a deep rift with Hitler and other leaders of the party. In 1932 he was placed in charge of party organization. In December 1932, Paul von Hindenburg invited Kurt von Schleicher to become chancellor and invited Strasser to be his deputy. Schleicher hoped that in bringing Strasser in he might pull with him the entire left wing of the NSDAP. Hitler and Hermann Göring challenged the move claiming it was an attempt to create a split in the NSDAP. A meeting of high-ranking Nazi officials was held at which all present repudiated Strasser and declared themselves "ready to continue the fight at the sides of Hitler". In order to maintain party unity Strasser resigned all party positions and found work in a large chemical firm. On June 30 1934, the date known as "The Night of the Long Knives", Strasser was attacked in his home while having lunch by Nazi Party elements loyal to Hitler, and was taken to prison, where he was later shot."
1900 Boer War: The British seize Johannesburg and occupy Pretoria.
1902 Boer War: The Treaty of Vereeniging is signed in Pretoria bringing an end to the Boer War. More than 5,000 British troops and at least 4,000 Boers were killed in action.
1904 Byron J. Carter receives a US patent for his "friction-drive" mechanism, designed to replace conventional auto transmission to provide more precise control of a car's speed. The friction-drive "uses friction discs, instead of gears, so arranged as to be instantly changed to any desired speed. The discs also change to forward or backward movement, and can be used as a brake to stop the machine by reversing the lever." Carter's friction drive will never catch on, as conventional transmissions serve their purpose adequately, and the friction discs prove to be susceptible to poor road conditions. Carter's ingenious design will, however, attract the attention of William Durant, General Motor's megalomaniac expansionist director. He will purchase the Cartercar design thinking it might turn into something big; it never will. The technology involved in the friction-drive is, however, related to today's disc brakes. (Bradley)
1906 The King and Queen of Spain narrowly escape an assassination attempt on their wedding day.
1907 Paris taxi cabs arrive in New York City; the first in the United States.
1910 The Union of South Africa is founded with the amalgamation of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange River Colony.
1911 In Belfast, the ill-fated White Star liner the Titanic is launched as one of the largest vessels afloat.
1912 American Marines land in Cuba to 'protect American interests.'
1913 The 17th Amendment to the US Constitution, providing for the popular election of US senators, is declared in effect. Note: This amendment dramatically alters America's republican form of government and further reduces the power of the individual states.
1915 WW1: Townshend, in Mesopotamia, overwhelms a Turkish outpost near Qurna in an amphibious assault, and begins to move inland.
1916 WW1: At about 3:30pm, The Battle of Jutland, the most important naval engagement of the war begins. Fewer than four hours later the British have lost three battle cruisers, three cruisers, and eight destroyers; with 6,784 casualties. The Germans have lost only one old battleship, one battle cruiser, four light cruisers, and five destroyers; with 3,039 casualties. The Battle of Jutland is the end of an era: the last great fleet action in which both opponents slug it out within eyesight of one another. Yet neither side can claim a victory, though the German High Sea Fleet will not put to sea for the remainder of the war.
1928 Weimar: General elections in Germany result in gains for the Socialist party and losses for the Nationalists and Monarchists.
1932 Weimar: Franz von Papen becomes Chancellor and declares his exit from the Catholic Center Party. Note: The Center Party is angry as Bruning's dismissal and soon begins negotiations with the National Socialists aimed at the formation of a coalition government. (Lewy)
1933 A confrontation breaks out between BETAR members and Ha-Poel in Haifa. (Edelheit)
1934 Holocaust: All those racially classified as Jews are dismissed from the German army. (Edelheit)
1934 Colditz concentration camp is closed.
1937 Spanish Cicil War: The German fleet shells the Spanish city of Almeira in retaliation for the attack on the Deutschland.
1937 On his arrival in America, Walter Krivitsky, Stalin's chief of Military Intelligence, reveals to the US State Department the full details of Stalin's purges. Krivitsky claims Stalin is determined to forge a pact with Hitler and has turned against the old Bolsheviks and officers of the Red Army because they are opposed to any alliance with Hitler. "Stalin, in the name of antifascism, destroyed the antifascists," Kivitsky says.
1939 Holocaust: Hundreds of commercial licenses held by Jews are canceled after the Hungarian Ministry of Commerce applies strict numerus clausus to Jewish businesses.
1940 President Roosevelt introduces a "billion-dollar defense program" to boost US military strength.
1940 WW2: Sir Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists, is arrested by special branch detectives outside his home when he returns from a drive. Thirty-three other fascists are also detained under regulations allowing for internment of those who have 'associated with the enemy.'
1941 The very first issue of the still popular "Parade: The Weekly Picture Newspaper" goes on sale. Some 125,000 copies are sold for a nickel each. "Parade" will become the most-read publication in the US with a circulation of over 22-million readers in 132 newspapers.
1941 WW2: The surviving British troops on Crete are evacuated.
1945 Death: Odilo Globocnik, born in Trieste and trained as engineer; SS major general in Poland in 1942; established the extermination camps of Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka and Majdanek as chief of Operation Reinhard (1942-1943); established the San Sabba concentration camp and killing center in Trieste as Higher SS and Police Leader for the Adriatic Coast (1943-1945). Arrested by Allied troops in Austria, commits suicide this day.
1945 In China, General Chiang Kai-shek resigns as premier and is succeeded by Dr T.V. Soong. Chiang Kai-shek still remains as president.
1960 Death: Walter Funk, journalist for the "Berlin Stock Exchange Journal" and Reich economic minister from 1937-1945. Succeeded Hjalmar Schacht as President of the Reichsbank in 1939, a position he held until the end of the war. Funk was sentenced to life imprisonment at Nuremberg in 1946, but was released in 1958 for reasons of health.
1961 South Africa proclaims itself a republic and leaves the Commonwealth.
1962 Death: Adolf Eichmann, hanged in Jerusalem. "...At the end of World War II, Eichmann went into hiding. He was briefly captured by the Americans but managed to escape by using a false name and claiming to be a demobilized German Army soldier. Eichmann was able to secure passage to South America, and he left Germany at the start of 1947. He remained in hiding within a Catholic monastery in Italy for a year. In 1947, Eichmann bought a plane ticket to Buenos Aires under the assumed name Ricardo Klement and, for the next fifteen years, worked in several odd jobs in the Buenos Aires area (from factory foreman, to junior water engineer and professional rabbit farmer). Eichmann had also brought his family to Argentina and had started a completely new life. Argentina at the time was a haven for many Nazis.
1970 In Peru, a magnitude 7.9 earthquake strikes the towns of Yungay, Huaraz and Chimbote, destroying all three as well as surrounding villages; more than 70,000 people are killed and 600,000 left homeless.
1974 Israel and Syria sign an agreement concerning the Golan Heights.
1977 The trans-Alaska oil pipeline, three years in the making, is completed.
1988 A Norwegian court rules that soldiers can wear earrings on parade.
1988 Americans and Soviets ratify the INF treaty, agreeing to eliminate medium range nuclear warheads.
1990 President H.W. George Bush and his wife, Barbara, welcome Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev in a ceremony at the White House. The two leaders discuss German reunification.
1994 The United States announces that it is no longer aiming long-range nuclear missiles at targets in the former Soviet Union.
1994 US Representative Dan Rostenkowski, D-Illinois, is indicted on 17 felony counts, alleging he'd plundered nearly $700,000 from the government.
1994 Bosnia's parliament elects Croat war veteran Kresimir Zubak as the first interim president of a new power-sharing Muslim-Croat federation.
1995 President Bill Clinton declares he is ready to permit the temporary use of American ground forces in Bosnia to help UN peacekeepers move to safer positions.
1996 Right-winger Benjamin Netanyahu narrowly (50.4 to 49.5 percent) defeats Shimon Peres in the election for Israeli prime minister.
1996 Death: Dr. Timothy Leary, counterculture guru, at the age of 75.
1999 During a Memorial Day visit to Arlington National Cemetery, President Clinton asks Americans to reconsider their ambivalence about Kosovo, saying it is "a very small province in a small country. But it is a big test of what we believe in."
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