Sense

Kerala History

The political history of the region that later became known by such names as Venad, Kochi, Malabar, Travancore-Cochin and finally as Kerala state begins in the hints of poets and legend-makers .Greek, Roman and Chinese writers provide some facts about the long period between some undisclosed time before Christ and the 9th century AD when the first Chera kingdom existed. After the 9 th century AD more reliable information is available from stone writings and copper plates which replaced palm leaves for writing.

The oldest record about Kerala is in a rock edict by emperor Asoka between BC272 and BC 232.Many myths about ancient Kerala are contained in a book called Keralolpathi printed by Gundert in AD 1890.The original book was perhaps written in the middle of the 17th century. The reliability of this book as a historical record has been seriously compromised as a result of contradictions. The story that Parasuraman created Kerala is difficult to believe. In any event the book claims exactly that and describes the time up to AD 216 as Parasurama period.AD 216 to 428 is described as the age of 'Perumals' . Apparently it was Parasuraman's idea to bring in these rulers from the outside. He ordered that each new Perumal be enthroned in Thirunavai at the time of the festival for Thevar. This is the origin of 'mamankam'. The first Perumal was 'Keralan' .A Perumal named Bana Perumal accepted Buddhism. The last Perumal was Cheraman Perumal. He served two terms of twelve years each and accepted Islam and went to Mecca.

Microlithic artifacts have been recovered from near Calicut from BC 4000.Megalithic monuments are various kinds of burial stones and urns. Some man- made underground chambers have also been found.

Stone records and copper plates have provided a lot of information about the past. Till the end of the 14 th century records were kept on stones or copper plates. After that till the beginning of the 19th century records were kept on palm leaves. From the 16th century onwards paper records were used. Many records are in Tamil or Malayalam. One of the most important copper plates is called "Tarisa palli shasanam" and was issued by Sthanu Ravivarman around AD 844.Other important records of this type are Parthivapuram edict by a Karunanthadakkan in AD 866, the copper plate given to Jewish Joseph Rabban in AD999 by Bhaskara Ravivarma and Veeraraghavapattayam of AD 1225. A record dated AD1236 by Kerlavarman details tax collection techniques of the time.

Temple records are another valuable source. In Travancore the best records are from Sri.Padmanabha Swami shethram. Unfortunately some records have been ruined by vermin and some by a fire in AD1686.Raja Marthanda Varma brought to Trivandrum records from territories he conquered except in the case of the kingdom of Kayamkulam where the fleeing king submerged his records at the bottom of lake Ashtamudi.

Since Vascode Gama's arrival in 1498 there are numerous records by visiting foreigners. The Dutch rulers wrote their memoirs and two of them have been published in English by Galletti in The Dutch In Malabar. There is also a published list called Press Lists Of Dutch Records.

Records from the Portugese, the Dutch and the English may contain distortions, but are helpful. Portugese records are in their language and are kept in Goa and Lisbon. The English have printed a book called The Tellicherry consultations. Logan's A collection of treaties, engagements, etc concerning Malabar is another useful resource. There is a book called A journey through Mysore, Canara and Malabar. In AD 1887 Logan who was the governor of Malabar wrote Malabar manual which was revised as Malabar Gazetteer some 30 years later. Similar to that we have Travancore state manual written by mr. Nagamayya and Cochin state manual written by Mr. Achuta Menon. In 1940 mr.T.K.Velupillai revised the Travancore state manual into four volumes. A list of pre-British laws can be learnt from a book called 'Vyavaharamala' by Mahishamangalam Narayanan Namputhiri.

From the first century to the 9th century was the Tamil period. During the first 300 years of this period -the so called samgakalam- there are several literary works of historical importance. A collection of poems called pathittupath is one of them .Purananooru is another collection of 400 song Chilappathikaram an epic poem written in four parts was written by Ilamkoadika, a nephew of king Cheran Chenkuttuvan. The book gives insights in to the conditions at that time in the Chola , Pandya and Chera capitals.

Mani Mekhala was a subsequent work. Another work called Perumalthirumozi gives information about the Perumal rulers. In the Sanskrit literature there are some valuable resources. One of the important ones is Mukundamala believed to have been written by Kulasekara Alwar a predecessor of Cheraman Perumal.

Amongst Malayalam works there are unniadicharitam and unnichirudevicharitam which give insight in to the thirteenth and fourteenth century Leelathilakam gives hints about the rulers of that time. Unnuneelisandesham describes the times of a ruler Adityavarman who stayed in Thovala.

Gundart in 1868 published the story of Portugese rule from 1498 to 1551.There are many native song collections such as Iravikuttipillai patt', padapattu, Mamankam kilipattu, puthuram pattukal, thacholipattukal and Chaverpattukal

Foreign literature:- The historical references before 16th century to the area that became Kerala have been summarized in a book by Prof. Neelakanda Sastri .It is called Foreign Notices Of South India.

Other references are as follows:- Strabo's Geography-Information about the beginning Roman trade with the east Plini's Natural History AD 77 --Roman connections with Kodungallore and Purakkadu

The Periplus Of The Erythrean Sea-Ad 90-Trade centers and imports and exports with the area that became Kerala later.

Ptolomy's Geography-AD 125-Alist of important trade centers in South India.

Peutinger Tables-AD 225-Records a Romam base and a Roman temple of Augustus in Kodungallore. A detachment of Roman soldiers were stationed there.

Cosmos Indico Pleustes- AD 525 gives a list of five centers of pepper trade namely Patri, Mangaruth, Dharma Pattanam, Vala Pattanam and Puthu Pattanam.

From the 9th century Arab sources give information about the region. S.M.H.Ninan discusses this in a book called Arab Geographer's Knowledge Of South India .

Jews started arriving from the first century AD . Some of the sources are Benjamin Of Judela AD1175, and Rabbi Nissam 14th century. Abraham Ibn- Ezra a poet visited Kodungallore between AD 1092 and AD 1167 but has not written about it. Among the Chinese who have written there are Wang- ta-Yuan (AD 1349), Mahuan(AD1409) and Fei-Hsin (AD 1436)

Amongst Christian writers before the 16th century are :- Marco Polo AD 1292-93 John Of Monte Corvino AD 1293 Odoric AD 1318 Father Jordanus AD 1323- a note about Matrilineal system Nicolo Condi AD 1425 to AD 1441 Athanosius Nikitin AD 1474 and Stephano Covilho

Amongst references of the Portugese era the following are noteworthy:- Book Of Durate Barbosa Travels Of Ludovic Varthema Commentaries Of Alffonso Albuquerque Castenhada's History Of The Discovery And Conquest Of India By The Portugese Gundert's Keralapazama Shiek Zeinuddin's Tohuft-ul-Mujahidin Ceasar Frederick's and Ralph Fitch's Travels Pyrard De Lavel and Pietro Della Valle (description of Calicut in the 17 th century )

Amongst books of the Dutch period the following are important :- Baldeus Lingchotten Nieuhoff Itty Achutan's 12 volume Hortus Malabaricus, an ayurvedic treatise submitted to Van Rheed a Dutch officer

Other documents:- Notice Of The Cochin Jews AD 1686 Hamilton's A New Account Of East Indies(end of 17th century to beginning of 18 th century ) A.Fryer's A New Account Of East Indies And Persia Letters Of Malabar Chaplin Vissher 18th century-mr. K.P.Padbanabhan's 4 volume History Of Kerala is based on these letters.

Coins:- Roman coins dating from BC 40 to AD 98 have been recovered from the area. In 1962 Egyptian coins of 7th and 8th century were found in Kothamangalam.

Ancient ruins:- Ruins of jain and Buddhist monuments date back to the period before 7th and 8th centuary. The largest and most important Hindu temples were Trivandrum's Sri. Padbanabha Swami shethram, Vaikkam's Mahadeva shethram and Shuchindram shetram which is in Tamil Nadu since 1956.

Ancient drawings:- Historical portraits are rare. Amongst the portraits that exist there are the following :- A meeting of Attingal Rani and Neuhoff (Dutch) The surrender of the Dutch To Marthanda Varma AT Kulachal Tippu's attack on 'Nedumkotta' (fort) Joint offensive against Tippu by the English and native armies

Chapter 2 - Myths And Legends

Brahmin tradition says that Parasuraman planted sixty-four joint Brahmin families and gave them laws and institutions to govern themselves. But like modern Malayalis the Brahmins found it impossible to agree. So they invited rulers from outside who came to be known as Perumals. They came from across the mountains and were Kshatriyas. Each ruler was appointed for a twelve year term.

There is credibility to the twelve year term in the traditions such as Mamankam by which the new king was selected.After the Arynization of Kerala religious dedication by the outgoing king became acceptable in lieu of ritual death. At least two Chera kings followed this route. One was Kulasekara Alwar who ruled in the 8th century. He became a devotional Vaishnavite poet. A later king who abdicated his throne in 825 AD was Cheraman Perumal who apparently accepted Islam and went to Mecca.

Tamil poems from the 'sangham' period are the earliest reference to the Chera empire. Sangham period refers to the time when academies or sanghams flourished for the cultivation of poetic arts in various capitals of the Pandiyan kingdom. There were three of these Sanghams. The first two existed in cities that were taken over by the sea. The third existed in Madura. The time period is probably the first three centuries of the Christian era. The three works attributed to Kerala poets during this epoch are shilappadikaram , patridupattu, Kalavali-harpathu. Of these the first one gives a lot of information about political organization then. There were four or perhaps five divisions to the Chera kingdom. The northern most of these divisions was near Cannanore and the southern most near Thiruvananthapuram.

The Chera capital was Vanchi near Muzuris. The chief minister, the chief priest and the chief astrologer had great deal of influence with the ruler. There were at least five ports on the Malabar coast to which sailors came according to the Greek mariner who compiled periplus of the Erythraean sea. The most important port was Muzuris which stood at the mouth of the Periyar river. The location was where Cranganore (Kodungallore) stands today. The other ports were likely Kottayam, Tripuithura, Pantalayani Kollam near Calicut.

From the third century to early 9th century there is very little reliable information. Trade with the west continued at least until the 6th century. Coins of Byzantine emperors up to Justin 1 have been discovered in Kerala. The last of the travellers that reached the Malabar coast was Cosmos Indicopleustes. He must have arrived between AD520 and AD525.He was a Nestorian from Alexandria. He has recorded seeing Christian Church, and coconut palms and a flourishing trade in pepper and sandalwood.

Soon after the visit of Cosmos the Greek ships stopped arriving. It is speculated that a warrior race called Kalabras were causing havoc all over south India. They terrorized the region for several centuries until at the beginning of the seventh century when the Pandias defeated them. However by then Moslem conquest of Egypt had occurred and direct contact with the Byzantium was interrupted.

By the 9th century Chera-Chola-Pandiya skirmishes and wars were influenced by the entry of Pallavas of remotely Iranian ancestry. They conquered most of the Chola empire. The Chera kings of that period are known by the family name Kulasekaras. Their capital was Mahodyapuram near Cranganore. They ruled most of what is present Kerala except for the Vizinjam area which was ruled by Ay kings and Cape Comorin ruled by the Pandias. .

There were several divisions to this large Kulasekara empire. Most were ruled by naduvazis. Venadu , south of Cochin was an exception. It had a great deal of autonomy. Quilion was it's important port. It was visited by Arabs, Nestorian Christians and Chines. A new year was started in AD 825 called 'Kolla varsham'.

Marumakkathayam and Sambandam :- Marumakatayam was the unique Nair family system of inheritance. The Nair family unit consisted of a common ancestral female line. The eldest mail member of the family called karanavar administered the property. A man's children had no rights in the family as they belonged to the wife's family. When the Nair boys reached the age of 7 they were sent to learn agility and gymnastics in the Kalaris.

Samandam:- This was a Namputhiri practice .In Namputiri illams only the eldest male member was allowed to marry from his caste. He was allowed up to five wives. This lead many Namputhiri women to spinsterhood. As for the other males the caste laws were relaxed to allow sexual liaisons between Namputiri men and Nair women of higher sub-castes. Often polyandry occurred and woman was shared by a Nair husband and a visiting Namputiri. All these arrangements were to prevent division of family assets. In effect the practice of Sambandam led to decline of numerical strength of namputhiris in relation to nairs.

There were skirmishes and wars and reconciliations amongst three Dravidian kings-The Cheras, The Cholas and the Pandias. Hinduism flourished. Brahmins were the dominant caste. Judaism, Christianity and Islam too existed side by side with Hinduism.

The Chera kings depended on the Nair caste for military manpower. Village gymnasiums called 'Kalaris' sprung up everywhere to train the boys in the art of war.Wars continued amongst the Cheras, The Cholas and The Pandias. By 1070 a Chera king, Bhaskara Ravi Varman 3 freed most the land lost to foreigners.

Chapter 3-Venad and Kulasekaras

The region south of Cochin centered around Quilion came to be known as Venad. It was an autonomous kingdom within the Chera empire. The port was visited by Nestorian Christians, Chinese and Arabs. A new calendar was established called 'Kolla Varsham' (Quilion year) starting in AD 825.The Kulasekara empire lasted for three centuries. }

A descendant of the Cheras had settled in a place called Keezperur near Chirayinkeezu and became strong by the 6th or 7th century. He may have moved to Quilion well before the inception of the Quilion Calendar in 9th century.

From the time this ruler (Ramavarma Kulasekara) all kings of Venad maintained the dynastic name of Kulasekara until the last Maharajah gave up his legal claims to power in 1949 when the state was absorbed in to the republic of India.

Ravi Varma Kulasekara who became ruler in 1299 would later expand his territory to include principalities north of what was Venad then. Ravivarman also attracted to his court scholars and poets from all parts of Drawidian India. The king himself was a competent musician and wrote a Sanskrit play Pradyumnabhyu dayam. Ravivarman who had expanded his kingdom died in Quilion in 1313. His cousin- Veera Udaya Marthanda Varma was the successor. For four centuries after the reign of Ravivarma the Kulasekaras lost ground and power.

Gradually they lost more and more territory. By the time Marthanda Varma (a later Venad expansionist ) began his rule only a small strip of land between Cape Comorin and Trivandrum remained in the hands of the Kulasekaras. The north and center of the Chera empire broke up in to small principalities at the beginning of the 12th century. Their rulers were local Nair or less frequently Brahmins chieftains who set themselves as Rajas. Marcopolo travelled along the cost in 1290s . He found a series of independent kingdoms -Comorin, Quilion, Ely (Cannanore),and Malabar.

When the Europeans started arriving in the Malabar coast besides Venad there were states called Calicut ruled by Zamorins, Perumpadappu swarupam later known as Cochin and the Kolathiris who ruled the region around Cananore. Each of these states had it's own port namely Quilion , Venad, Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore. One minor ruler besides the above was the ruler of Kayamkulam.

The ancient port of Muzuris under the raja of Cranganore became silted up in 1341 and a great deal of the trade shifted to Cochin. The sea had retreated from Kottayam and Tripunitura and these were no longer ports. Trivandrum, Aleppy, and Tellicherri remained in use. Quilion was the center of China trade. Calicut and Cananore were the ports favored by the Arabs. Cochin gained importance after the arrival of the Portuguese on account of it's sheltered harbor

There were frequent warfare between the Dravidian kingdoms namely Cheras, Cholas and Pandiyas. The caste system had not become entrenched. Religious tolerance was complete. Old tribal Dravidian cults, Vedic Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism all existed side by side. Art forms of music, dance and poetry flourished. Women enjoyed equal status as men. Compared to Chola desham and Pandiya desham Arynization was slo in Chera kindom..

The Quilion year was started in AD 825 as already mentioned..

According to Elankulam Kunjan Pillai the rulers of the second Chera empire of this period were:- Kulasekara Alwar 800- 820 Rajasekara 820-844 Sthanu Ravi Varma 844-885 Rama Varma 885-917 Goda Ravi Varma 917-947 Indukotha Varma 944-962 Bhaskara Ravi 1 962-1019 Bhaskara Ravi 2 979-1021 Vira Kerala 1021-1028 Rajasimha 1025-1043 Bhaskara Ravi 3 1043-1082 Ravi Rama Varma 1082-1090 Rama Varma Kulasekara 1090-1102

Other writers have given slightly different list of rulers of the same period:-

SthanuraviAD871-907 Ayyanadikal Thiruadikal-Tharisa palli copper plate Veerakeralavarma2 Veeramarthandavarma 8th century Udayamarthandavarma 8th century Srivallabhan Kotha AD 964 Kotha Adicha varman-AD 964 to 981 Veera Keralavarma-AAD 964-981 Ramar Thiruadikal-12 th century Veera keralavarma 1117-1145 Kotha Keralavarma Veera Ravivarma1151-1164 Veera Keralavarma Veera Aditya Varma Udaya Marthanda Varma

Chapter 4 - 12th century and onwards.:-

Ramathiruvadi Rajasimhan AD116 Veera Keralavarrna 1117-1145 Sri Kotha Kerala Varma. Veera Kerala Varma Veera Aditya Varma Udaya Marthanda Varma. Veera Ravi Samgramadheeran -He became ruler in 1292. His rule was marked by successful military expeditions which extended the borders of his state. Sri Veera Udaya Marthanda Varma was the ruler who adopted two princesses from Kolathu nadu and established them in Attingal. Sri. Veera Rama Udaya Marthanda Varma started his reign in AD1335. Chera Udaya Marthanda Varma based in a capital called CheraMahadevi. Veera Ravi Varma, Sri. Veera Rama Marthanda Varma Kulasekaran, and Kotha Aditya Varma ruled during the period 1444-- 1484. Ravivarma followed in 1484. His rule was marked by the arrival of the Portuguese and the conflict with Vijayanagaram. Thruppappur Ravi Kerala Varma, Bhuthala Veera Shri Veera Udaya Marthanda Varma. Bhuthala Veera Ravi Varma. Rama Varma Aditya Varma Umayamma Rani Ravi Varma Marthanda Varma Ravi Varma (Dharma Raja) Balarama Varma Rani Gowri Lakshmi Bhai Rani Gowri Lakshmi Bhai as regent Rani Parvathi Bhai as regent Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma 1829

Rama Varma and Aditya Varma who came before Umayamma Rani were week. There was a decline in Royal authority with equivalent rise in powers of temples. The confrontation with the group called 'ettara yogam' based in the Sri Padmanabha temple led to disastrous consequences. There are unsubstantiated stories that the palace was set on fire and the king assassinated and Umayamma rani's five sons were drowned in 'kalippankulam'.

After Aditya Varma's rule ended in 1677 Umayamma Rani took over followed by her son Ravivarma Temple power increased. There were law and order problems in Nanchinadu and other places. Umayamma Rani defeated a rival claimant to the throne in battle -Nedumangattu Kerala Varma. In AD 1684 the rani facilitated the construction of godowns in Anchuthengu near Attingal for the English. Umayamma rani also adopted the famous Kottayam Kerala Varma in to the royal family. He was a strong man. He also ruled democratically. He translated Valmiki Ramayanam. He made enemies and one day as he was returning from a visit to Umayamma Rani was assassinated.

Marthanda Varma , the legendary king was born in 1706.He was born at a time of declining royal power and assertive temple brahmins.(pillamar). Marthanda Varma was a strong ruler who recovered lost land and enlarged his kingdom. He also reasserted royal power. He died in 1761.

He ruled from 1729 to 1758. He was the son of one of the two princesses adopted by Umayamma Rani from Kolathu Nadu. He worked side by side with his ruling uncle and Umayamma Rani's son Ravi Varma and gained experience. Even at that time with the help of the British he established a mint in Kulachal to issue coins. When the ruling raja passed away Marthanda Varma was proclaimed the successor according to 'Marumakkathayam'. However the two sons of the late king-Pappu Thampi and Raman Thampi with the help of Azkappa Muthaliar tried to usurp power.

Marthanda Varma soundly defeated these efforts. The Thampis were killed. Subsequently Marthanda Varma absorbed several smaller principalities like Deshinganad, Attingal, and Kottarakkara. Ramayyan Dalava was an able lieutenant who helped the ruler in all areas of his rule. The biggest achievement of Marthanda Varma was his decisive victory over a Dutch expeditionary force in Kulachal. Some twenty four Dutch soldiers were taken prisoners. Out of these two -Eustchices Dilanoy and Donadi -later helped to train the Travancore armies. In subsequent confrontations Marthanda Varma's forces soundly defeated the Dutch and the forces of the raja of Kayamkulam. In one of the final battles the raja of Kayamkulam fled to Trichur after hiding his valued objects at the bottom of lake Ashtamudi. When it was discovered that the ruler of Kayamkulam was getting assistance from Chempakasseri raja of Ampalapuza he too was removed. Apparently the raja's lieutenants, Mathur Panikkar and Thekkedathu Bhattathiri defected to the Travancore side. The defeated king was first brought to Thiruvananthapuram and subsequently settled in a place called Kudamalur near Kottayam with a monthly pension.

Next, Marthanda Varma conquered two more principalities called Thekkumkore and Vadakkumkore.

Marthanda Varma was a humble man in spite of his successes. Around AD750 donated all the territory he conquered to Sri Padmanabhan and continued to reign as his servant. He also renovated the Sri Padmanabha temple and built a fort around it. He built a new palace at Kalkulam which came to be known as 'Padbanabhapuram' palace.

He also renovated many other temples and improved the canal system as well as road ways in Travancore. In southern Travancore Ponmana dam and puthan dam were built.

He strengthened the state's defenses. The army was strengthened with divisions of gunners, horse back soldiers and foot soldiers.

His successor was Rama Varma popularly known as Dharmaraja. He held on to the territorial gains accomplished by his predecessor. In Travancore's north end from sea to mountain he built a fort called 'Nedumkotta'.He also incorporated Paravur and Alangadu to Travancore. A road was constructed from Purakkattu to Quilion via Krishnapuram. He also improved agriculture and made administration more efficient by dividing the state in to three regions. Towards his end he entered in to agreements with the English which subsequently led to the erosion of the state's autonomy. Dharma Raja passed away on February 17, 1798 at the age of 75 years.

In 1798 Balaramavarma took over. He was only sixteen years old. The internal affairs of Travancore were in great disarray. He became a puppet in the hands of Jayanthan Sankaran Namputhiri and friends. He removed the capable Kesavadasan from the position of divan and confiscated his family assets. A rebellion under the leadership of Veluthampi and Chempaka Raman Pillai followed. Jayanthan Sankaran was removed from office and Veluthampi was appointed in his place. Sankara Narayana Chetty and Mathu Tharakan -two other advisers of the old regime were punished. Veluthampi was very strict in enforcing rules. Eventually Velu Thampi was appointed divan. He was an able administrator. However Colonel Macaulay , the British resident cleverly outmaneuvered Veluthampi. Treaties were signed which virtually ended the autonomy of the state. Veluthampi resisted this English treachery but eventually was defeated and committed suicide. The English ,not satisfied with his death hanged his body in Trivandrum. His house was levelled and relatives deported to Maldives. Velu Thampi was replaced by Dalava Ummini Thampi. But the raja did not trust him.

In 1810 the raja passed away and Rani Gowri Lakshmi Bhai took reigns. She faced some opposition from the younger raja. But the British supported her. She removed Ummini Thampi from the job as Dalawa. Colonel Munro became the new divan. He made many changes. Those included the beginning of the government secretariat, a modern judiciary and abolition of slavery. He also revitalized the Travancore army under European command.

In 1813 rani Lakshmi Bhai had a son born. He was declared as the raja but the rani continued rule as regent. She passed away in 1815. Her sister rani Parvathi Bhai took over as regent. Christian missionaries became active in the state during her reign. In 1829 Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma took over the administration from the rani.

Chapter 5 -19 th century and onwards

Swati Thirunal 1829-1847 Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma 1847-1860 Ayillyam Thirunal 1860--1880 Vishakham Thirunal 1880--1885 Sri Mulam Thirunal 1885--1924 Regent Sethu Lakshmi Bhai 1924-1931 Sri Chithira Thirunal 1931-1938

Swati Thirunal who ruled from 1829 to 1847 was a patron of arts. He gathered around him poets and musicians. Swati Thirunal was a learned man. He understood several languages and composed poetic hymns. He gave us as early as 1830's a western style judicial system and legal code. He moved the palace and government offices to Thiruvananthapuram.

Uthram Thirunal maharajah ended the old prohibitions against low caste women covering their breasts. In 1919 Sri Mulam Thirunal introduced cautious democratic reforms in the form of a 25 member legislative council. The next Maharajah was Sri. Chitira Thirunal who created a lower house called Sri.Mulam assembly and an upper house called Sri.Chithira council. Democracy was however name sake only when one considered the way members were selected. Also the devan himself was the president of both houses. The public revolted demanding proportional representation and an end to preference for the higher castes in government service.

Mr.C.Kesavan who led the popular agitation was arrested after a speech in Kozancherri. He was charged with treason and sent to jail for two years. This backfired. Even the higher castes saw the arrest of C.Kesavan as a high handed move. Eventually the government capitulated and gave in to all the demands of the agitators. The tact and diplomacy of the dewan at that time played an important role in this resolution. The devan then was sir.Mohamad Habibulla.

Sir C.P.was appointed as devan in 1936.The same year the temple entry proclamation was passed by the Maharajah of Travancore. This recognition of lower caste rights won praise even from Mahatma Gandhi who came to Travancore and visited several temples.

After the elections of 1937 mr. T.M.Veerghese emerged as a leader. When Mr.C.Kesavan was released from jail on the Maharajah's birth day a meeting in Aleppy paid tributes to him. Mr.T.M.Verghese spoke at that meeting on behalf of Travancore's 51 lakh people. The government disliked that and forced mr.Verghese to resign. Demands became more forceful for democratic reforms . Sir.C.P. in his autocratic style declined any concessions.

In 1938 an All India Congress meeting in Haripuri had passed a resolution distancing Indian National Congress from the freedom fights in princely states. This lead to the formation of a local organization called Travancore state Congress under the leadership of mr.C.V.Kunju Raman.

The first president was mr. Pattam Thanupillai. Secretary was P.S.Nadaraja Pillai. Mr.C.Kesavan and T.M.Verghese were prominent members.

While the wind of change was blowing even in neighboring Cochin state Sir.C.P.Ramaswami Iyer resorted to both divide and rule strategies and brutality against those leaders who resisted. Mr.A.Narayana Pillai wrote an article at that time in 'Malayala Rajyam' under the title "Nairs and public service". Sir. C.P.'s government arrested him on a drummed up charge. A defense committee was formed and a famous advocate mr.K.F.Nariman was hired to represent mr. Pillai. C.P's goondas appeared at the airport with black flags shouting 'Nariman go back". The public resisted these goondas and a young leader mr.P.T.punnose took away the black flags from C.P.'s goondas. Eventually mr.Nariman was prevented from representing his client on the ground that he himself had served a jail term. Mr.Pillai served a two year jail term. Before leaving Travancore however, Mr.Nariman issued a press release condemning C.P.s' authoritarian rule and urging people to unite and fight for democratic government.

Sir.C.P.became more agitated as he saw the increasing support for the state Congress amongst the public. He resorted to disruptive tactics. Leaders were attacked and beaten in public meetings. Police refused to intervene. Stone-throwing on to the platforms of Congress meeting was another, C.P. encouraged goonda tactic. Government servants related to Congress men were transferred to remote areas. Teachers with connections to Congress men lost their certification. Pattam Thanu Pillai and Madhava Warrior were beaten with metal clubs in open day light. Miss Ani Mascreen's house was raided and all household items stolen. Congress advocates were subjected to robbery. Protesting in the legislative councils was of no avail. C.P.turned a deaf ear to the complaints.

Another strategy of Sir.C.P. was suppression of the press. The 'Kaumudi' newspaper started by Mr.C.V.Kunjuraman and run by Mr.C.Kesavan was closed down and it's license revoked. The offense was publication of a letter demanding democratic reforms. Two other publications that had the same fate were 'Tamilian' and 'Samadarsini'. At the same time all publications that were pro C.P. were given all encouragement.

The leaders were not cowed by C.P.'s tactics. A huge meeting and rally were held in the railway grounds in Trivandrum. Sir.C.P. tried to intimidate the organizers by calling the Travancore army in. Further all subsequent rallies and meetings were banned. P.K.Kunju and P.N.Krishna Pillai were arrested. Workers in Aleppy became enraged. The situation became explosive. One worker lost his life when the police charged with bayonets.

When the bans were lifted Congress leaders started organizing meetings again. A meeting in Neyyattinkara was attacked by goondas and subsequently banned by an express order by the district magistrate. A mammoth rally and meeting in Chenganore was disrupted by C.P.'s goondas. Pattam,C. Kesavan, T.K.Narayana Pillai, G.Chandra sekara pilla and Ponnara Sridhar were attacked publicly with C.P's police looking on. Mr.E.John Philipose was attacked by a rowdy who slapped him with chapels. Finally an open confrontation erupted between the public and C.P.'s police. The frightened police fled.

CP interfered and influenced the outcome of an election in Mavelikkara. The Congress working committee petitioned the Maharajah directly demanding democratic and responsive government. The government banned the publication of the document that came to be known as 'Congress memorandum'. However hundreds of copies were printed and distributed. A Congress youth wing was formed. Ms. Kamala Devi Chadopadya was invited to their Trivandrum meeting. She was banned to speak in Trivandrum and Quilion. She planned to defy and speak in Trivandrum. She was arrested and banished to Thirunalveli. The government initiated steps to punish the Congress youth wing. It's leaders like Ponnara Sridhar ,N.Srikandan Nairand K.Damodaran were arrested.

The state Congress intensified it's agitation. A Mammoth meeting was held in Trivandrum's Shankumukam beech. Leaders were arrested in Trivandrum, Quilion and Kottayam. There was yet another meeting which was disrupted by the police. People were beaten. The enraged masses set fire to the police superintendents car. One of the worst police suppression followed. C.P threw an investigation report about police atrocities in to the waste basket.

Students every where were joining the agitation. C.M.Stephen and Prakkulam Bhasi gave leadership in Trivandrum. The students were brutally beaten near the university college grounds by police and Travancore army. The Maharajah himself faced demonstrations when going to the temple. All colleges and educational institutions were closed indefinitely.

C.P resorted to divide and rule tactics at this point. He turned against the Christians. He persuaded Hindus to make massive withdrawals from the national Quilion bank. The bank requested a day's time from it's customers. C.P mean time claimed that the bank was broke and sealed it's offices. It was rather ironic that this was done on the same day when the bank's branch was to open in Dawning street, London. The directors of the bank like C.P.Mathen, K.C.Mamman Mapplai and K.C.Eapen were thrown in to jail. C.P.'s aim was to weaken the Congress party by destroying an influential and powerful bank and it's directors.

In Changanacherri on the pretext that there was a spreading disease affecting banana plantations tens of thousands of banana trees were cut down. All these repressive measures only fuelled the agitation

In Neyyattinkara the army opened fire and five people lost their lives. K.R.Elenkath and others resigned from the legislative body in protest. There was another police firing in Quilion with two deaths. One man lost his lag. In Kuttanadu people blocked roads under the leadership of Kumbalathu Sankupillai.

State Congress was banned in Travancore. They moved their headquarters to Eranakulam. There was a great deal of support from Cochin state and even Madras to the agitation in Travancore. A delegation including E.M.Sankaran Namputhiripadu, K.A.Damodara Menon and P.Krishna Pillai were sent to Travancore from Cochin.A.K.Gopalan led a march in to Travancore. They were given big reception at every railway station. In Alwaye, UC.College students organized a big reception for A.K.Gopalan and his party. Police intervened and A.K.Gopalan and his team were arrested. Police beat up A.K.G. in jail He and his group were moved to jails in Kottayam and then Vaikkam. Rumor spread that AKG died from police brutality. People massed in front of the police station in Vaikkaom and demanded that AKG be brought out. They dispersed only after AKG was brought out to the veranda. On September 12 1938 Malayala Manorama's license was revoked and the offices sealed. Out of state papers like Mathrubhoomi, Indian Express Deepam, Gomathy and Malabar Mail were also banned from the state.

In Kottarakkra district at a place called Kadakkal police and army unleashed terrible atrocities in response to a Congress demonstration against a crooked contractor. People including women were beaten and houses burnt.

Mean time C.P secretly sent his emissaries to negotiate with Congress leaders. They demanded unconditional release from jail first. C.P. tried to paint State Congress as a Christian communal organization. He tried to create a rival organization which never got of the ground.

By October 10, 1938 workers began to join the agitation. Both in Quilion and Aleppy there was loss of life. On October 19, 1938 the workers declared a strike. Jails were overflowing by now. There was a mass rally by workers in Aleppy on October 21, 1938.There was yet another police firing when the workers blocked transportation of goods. Akkamma Cheriyan led a mammoth rally to Trivandrum's Kavadiyar palace, the residence of the Maharajah. The government caved in lifting the ban on state Congress and youth league and releasing the leaders from jail.

A document incriminating Sir.C.P. with repression was in circulation at that time. In a very divisive move Mahatma Gandhi demanded that state Congress withdraw that document. C.P.felt vindicated. Compliance to Gandhi's demand led to a split in the state Congress with many of it's youth leaders leaving Congress and joining either the Communist party or the socialists.

C.P continued his repressive tactics with impunity. Arrests and denial of civil rights continued. Leaders were banned practicing law or disqualified for political office. Annie Mascreen was treated shabbily in jail.

Even as local leaders were planning another agitation Gandhiji again requested to stop it. C.P. himself orchestrated a big 60th birthday celebration for himself. A C.P. statue was erected in Trivandrum. A C.P.inspired "democratic committee" presented CP with a testimonial engraved on a gold plate !C.P. was trying to prove that he had a greater following amongst people than the Congress.

The war broke out in September 1939.Agitation in the state was temporarily stopped at Gandhi's request. C.P. concentrated on recruiting for the army. When CP visited Cochin students from Thevara college under the leadership of Baby John greeted him with black flags.

On august 9, 1949 soon after the quit India proclamation the British began to arrest Congress leaders outside the state. C.P took the cue and locked up state Congress leaders in Travancore. The youth wing of the Congress did not cooperate with the 'Quit India' movement on the grounds that there was a war going on there and it was not right to destabilize the government at such a time.

There was an election in 1944 to the legislative bodies. But those Congress leaders who were jailed previously were barred from running for office.

In 1946 CP announced some administrative reforms which were cosmetic. All the power remained in the hands of the devan. There was condemnation of the 'American model' reforms. Congress was criticized for taking part in discussions with C.P.

The Communist party had by now become a powerful force in Travancore. The party had strong following in Aleppy and Chertala districts. They organized unions amongst the beedi workers coir workers of Aleppy and the toddy tappers of Chertalai. The workers had tremendous resentment towards the land owners and employers on account of low wages, job uncertainty and exploitation. There followed a conflict between landlords and employers on the one hand and workers on the other hand. Each side complained about the other. The workers claimed that the land owners and employers were suppressing their unions while the former complained that the workers were attacking their homes. The landlords further alerted the authorities about secret military training by workers. The government reinforced the army and police in affected areas. The workers decided to deal might with might . Some men retired from the army started training Communist workers. The government targeted the Communist party and it's unions. Several leaders were arrested. Aleppy and vicinity changed to an armed camp. The army made route marches instilling fear in to people. Minor confrontations occurred between the workers and the army.

On September 24,1946 the workers of Aleppy and Chertalai declared a general strike. Leaders like Sugathan were arrested. Workers became enraged. They enmassed in Punnapra. An open war erupted between the police and the people on a public road. The people won this first round. The police were attacked with their own guns and clubs. An inspector of police was killed.

Sir C.P. countered this with declaration of martial law in Aleppy and surrounding areas. He declared himself as the commander in chief. There were rumors that there were secret training camps for workers in Punnappra. Major general V.N.Parameswaran led the army by sea and by land to Punnapra. A key bridge had been destroyed by the workers. The army vent their wrath indiscriminately on villagers. The workers offered resistance and attacked the army with home made weapons like sharpened sticks and stones. The army unit that arrived by water was prevented from landing for 3 hours. But ultimately the superior fire power of the army prevailed Nearly 700 workers were shot at close range. The army continued it's firing and burning of houses long after all resistance was gone.

Historians have differed in their views about the Punnapra Vayalar struggle. Left parties describe the struggle as an important land mark against authoritarian rule. Others have portrayed it as a fight led by a leadership with poor long term vision. Several communist leaders were arrested and charged.

Those charged included Kumara Panikkar, Pathrose, Kunjan, K.C.Georgge, P.G.Padmanabhan , M.N.Govindan Nair T.V.Thomas and T.K.Divakaran. Some who were convicted were ordered hanged. ( But a future Government would release them.)

CP continued his repressive policies making more arrests. Such measures caused even more animosity towards the dewan. Some plotted to assassinate him.

In the mean time changes were occurring rapidly in India as a whole. Britain passed the India independence act in 1946.India was to become independent by august 14,1947. A temporary government came in to existence under Pundit Nehru.

The princely states were given the option to remain independent or join the Indian union. Some rulers like Nysam of Hyderabad were already planning declare independence. CP tried to follow the same route. State Congress opposed CP's plans. Organizations like the NSS which previously supported CP now joined hands with Congress.

Congress was getting ready for one final battle with CP. Students were agitating once again. Their leaders like K.Balakrishnan and G.Ravindra Varma were arrested. Pattam Thanu Pillai announced a march from Ernakulam to Trivandrum. He was not arrested, but CP's goondas disrupted the meeting.

Then one night CP was attending a concert at the Swati Thirunal academy. There was a preplanned power failure and a little commotion. When the lights came on CP had been wounded with a sword. The police turned on the city for one last time in vengeance. Either because of the attack on his life or on account of a meeting CP had earlier with lord Mount Britain in Delhi CP now announced that Travancore was joining the Indian union. On August 19, 1947 CP resigned his job and left Travancore.

P.G.Unnithan was appointed as the new Devan. On September 4, 1947 a royal decree was declared that elections were to be held to form a body to draw up a constitution for the state All eligible by age were to be given voting rights. The elected body however decided that since India as a whole had a constitution Travancore need not bother to make one of it's own. They continued as a legislative body. On March 24, 1948 by a royal decree a democratic government was created. Pattam Thanu Pillai, C.Kesavan and T.M.Verghese were in that ministry. Divan rule came to an end. The Pattam ministry resigned on October 17, 1949 after disputes about expansion. The next ministry under Paravur T.K.Narayana Pillai was sworn in on October 22, 1949. It included A.J.John and Dr.E.K.Madhavan Nair.

On June 8, 1949 the Indian government hadannounced reorganization of states. Travancore was combined to Cochin and the Travancore maharajah was appointed as 'rajapramukhan'. The raja of Cochin was given a pension and retired.

On July 1, 1949 the Travancore-Cochin ministries were combined. That ministry collapsed due to differences of opinion on February 24, 1951.In 1952 there were general elections in India. In Travancore-Cochin no party had a majority. On March 12, 1952 after some delays a ministry was sworn in with mr. A.J.John as chief minister. Members were Panampilly, T.M.Verghese, Kalathil Velayudhan Nair, V.Madhavan and Kochu KuttanAfter sometime mr Chidambara Nadar also joined as representative of Tamilnadu Congress. This ministry was voted out on September 23, 1952. The 1954 elections again were inconclusive, Pattam 's P.S.P formed a government with Congress supporting from outside. Congress subsequently withdrew support and the ministry collapsed. The next government was also short lived and president's rule was declared. On November 1, 1956 Kerala state came in to existence. Rajapramukhan was replaced by a governor. From the old Travancore Thovala, Agastheeswaram, Kalkkulam and Valavancode and a part of Chenkottai went to Tamil Nadu. Malabar and Kassergodu district of Karnataka were added to Travancore -Cochin. Mr.B.Ramarao was appointed as the first governor. In the first elections that followed The communists gained a majority and the first Kerala ministry was sworn in under the leadership of Mr.E.M.Sankaran Namputhiripad.

Chapter 5 -19 th century and onwards

The first president was mr. Pattam Thanupillai. Secretary was P.S.Nadaraja Pillai. Mr.C.Kesavan and T.M.Verghese were prominent members.

There was an election in 1944 to the legislative bodies. But those Congress leaders who were jailed previously were barred from running for office.

CP continued his repressive policies making more arrests. Such measures caused even more animosity towards the dewan. Some plotted to assassinate him.

Chapter 6 - Recent history of Kerala

Princely states of Travancore and Cochin were first combined in 1949 and came to be known as "THIRU-COCHI".Sri Chithira Thirunal Bala Rama Varma was the head of state and was known as"RAJAPRAMUKHAN".On November 1, 1955 'Travancore-Cochin and parts of 'Malabar' , which was part of Madras presidency merged to form a new state called 'KERALA'.On that date 'Raja Pramukhan' retired.Before Kerala was created Malayalam State extended from Kassercode including Gudallor to Kanya Kumari in the south. In the process that lead to creation of Kerala we lost four 'taluks' in southern Travancore, some parts of 'Chenkottai' and 'Kanya Kumari'.We gained Malabar excluding 'Gudallur'.

THE STATE OF KERALA IN INDIA

With it's lush green vegetation, and palm trees Kerala is one of the smallest states in India along the Malabar coast of the Arabian sea. It is a rather narrow strip of land measuring about 15000 square miles that stretch 75 miles at it's broadest and only 20 miles wide at certain points in the north and south. It is different from he north of India where large rivers, and planes and scrubby lands welcome visitors.

Kerala is a distinct region separated from the adjoining states of India by the Western Ghats mountains which run parallel to the sea for about 85 miles along the shores of the Arabian Sea.

The plains are very humid and warm with an average temperature of 85 degrees. Two annual monsoons provide adequate precipitation, the South West monsoon from mid June to September and the Northeast monsoon from October to the end of November. The rest of the year is dry with occasional showers. While Kerala has the densest population in India it has a literacy rate of almost 100%.

The recent history of Kerala includes the prelude to independence, the road to Communism and the evolution of the modern state of Kerala. Kerala was formed out of three political units- the princely state of Cochin, which dates back to the middle ages, the kingdom of Travancore, which was created in the 18th century, and the Malabar district which was the former Kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut. Among the modern line of traders - the Portuguese, Dutch, French and the English, it was the English that presided over the fate of Kerala from 1791, to the end of British rule in 1947. During the first eighty years of British rule life changed very little. Caste structure and the matrilineal joint family systems continued in the three units that were to become Kerala. By the end of the eighteenth century, tea and coffee plantations developed. An industrial revolution began in the 1850s - textiles, tiles, coir etc. Modern education took root. The influx of missionaries contributed to western education. Democratic institutions were formed in 1888, and political activity which began during the following decade, intensified during the 1920s when the Indian National congress spearheaded the national independence movement. This was a period when the communist movement gathered momentum especially in Malabar.

As India itself was edging towards independence from Britain in 1947, Travancore, Cochin and Malabar all entered India as separate units. This was a period when the communist movement gathered momentum especially in Malabar.

All communities in Kerala share a common language, Malayalam. Malayalam is a Dravidian language closest to the Tamil language. It has it's own script which is slightly different from Tamil. It is also different from the Devanagari script used in Hindi, the national language. The vocabulary of Malayalam is a mixture of Tamil, Sanskrit and it's own elements.

Kerala is one of the most advanced states in India in the fields of education, transportation, communication and health care delivery. Most of the advancement since independence has come in the field of education. Industrial development has lagged behind some other centers in India due to labour unrest, lack of power resources and government ineptitude.

Vast pools of highly trained technical people from Kerala are serving elsewhere in India or overseas.

Profound economic changes are taking place in India and there is no doubt Kerala too is very eager to be part of that development with major initiatives in a variety of fields such as airports, electronics and power development.

Chronology from the formation of Kerala state

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Nov. 1, 1956 Birth of Kerala

March 1957. First Assembly Election

April 5, 1957. E.M.S. ministry (Communist ) sworn in

July 31, 1959 . E.M.S. ministry dismissed after 'Vimochana samaram under Mannathu Padbanabhan leader of the Nair community. Main reasons were an unpopular education bill which reduced the role of the private sector. An agricultural bill also met with opposition. There were also charges of nepotism , corruption in rice purchase from Andhra and charges of making the police force ineffective.

Feb. 1960. Election to assembly

February 22, 1960 :Pattam Thanu Pillai (Congress- P.S.P.) ministry sworn in.

September 25, 1962: Pattam ministry falls. Pattam appointed as governor of Punjab.

September 26, 1962: R.Sankar ministry (Congress ) sworn in.

September 10 , 1964: Sankar ministry falls Sankar and P.T.Chacko had conflicts. P.T.Chacko resigned from the ministry. T.A.Thomman replaced him. Internal strife in Congress became worse. !5 Congress MLAs resigned from Congress and formed a special group under K.M.George. That paved he way for the formation of Kerala Congress

March 1965. Assembly election (non-productive)

Feb.1967 Election to the assembly

March 6, 1967: Second E.M.S ministry (Communist )sworn in

October 24, 1969: E.M.S. ministry falls

November 1, 1969 Achuta Menon ministry (Left United Front ) sworn in

June 26, 1970 Assembly dissolved

August 1, 1970 :Achuta Menon ministry resigns

September 1970 Assembly election

October 4, 1970 Second Achuta Menon ministry sworn in

March 1977: Election to the assembly

March 25, 1977 :Karunakaran ministry (Congress ) sworn in

April 25, 1977 :Karunakaran resigns

April 27, 1977: A.K.Antony sworn in as chief minister (Congress)

October 29, 1978 : Antony resigns

October 29, 1978: P.K.Vasudevan Nair ministry (LDF) sworn in

October 7, 1979: Vasudevan Nair ministry falls

October 11, 1979: C.H.Mohamed Koya ministry (Right democratic front )sworn in

December 1, 1979: Mohamad Koya ministry falls

January 1980: election to the assembly

January 25, 1980 :E.K.Nayanar (LDF ) ministry sworn in.

October 20, 1981: Nayanar minisry falls.

December 21, 1981: Karunakaran ministry (United democratic frnt ) sworn in

March 17, 1982: Karunakaran ministry falls.

May 19, 1982: Assembly elections

May 24, 1982 :Karunakaran ministry (United Democratic Front ) sworn in

March 23, 1987: Assembly election.

March 26, 1987: E.K.Nayanar ministry (LDF) sworn in

June 24, 1991: Karunakaran ministry (UDF) sworn in

March 16, 1995 : Karunakaran ministry falls

March 22, 1995: A.K.Antony ministry (UDF) sworn in.

April 22, 1996: Elections to assembly.

May20, 1996: E.K.Nayanar ministry (LDF) sworn in