Roberto Rodríguez
Gómez
Centro
de Estudios Sobre la Universidad. Coordinación
de Humanidades
Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México
©
Roberto Rodríguez Gómez, 1998
roberto@servidor:unam.mx
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Summarie
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The transition took place both at an institutional level and on a system wide basis. With regard to the first, it is worth noting, the growth of the organization as a whole, the updating of the curriculum and modernization of the administrative, managerial and planning processes.
On a system wide scale, the most relevant transformation refers to a redistribution of the parts that make up the whole; the territorial distribution of access to education, distribution according to fields of knowledge and disciplines, the level structure and the distribution of different financing sources. These processes can be understood in the context of academic diversification and differentiation.
Another important series of changes derived from expanded opportunities for enrolling in higher education as a result of the system’s growth; this process, which gave new social groups access to universities, redefined the social profile of the student body.
In brief, the higher education system experienced transformations that, due to their extension and depth, changed the nature and functions traditionally attributed to universities. The political decision to expand access to higher education had as its corollaries an increase in the human resources and physical plants of universities, the experimentation with new teaching methods aimed at serving the rapidly growing student body, as well as the adaptation of administrative systems.
From the poswar period to the present, several faces of development can be outlined. The first one began in the 1950s and was characterized by having established the institutional base of a system of public universities throughout the country, for having set the conditions for scientific research, as well as for defining the role of the professional academic worker, in other words, full time professors and researchers.
During the 60s and based on this premise, a model for the university reform was designed following international trends. Through institutional consolidation strategies research and cultural activities were emphasized, the curricula was expanded, graduate studies were strengthened and faculty training and study abroad based on scholarship programs were initiated.
Mexican universities in the 1960s sought their modernization, links to a global model of development that favored industrialization, and an upgrading and preservation of academic excellence.
The 1970s constitute a different phase in the history of higher education, that is characterized, above all, by an expansion of the system. The decade saw an unprecedented multiplication in the number of students, professors, workers and facilities. This expansion established new challenges for universities that were confronted through the design and implementation of innovative curricula -at the high school* and bachelor´s level-, the standarization of planning formulas for the performance of academic and administrative activities, through adaptations to the general standards framework and to specific institutional regulations.
The phase of expansion that contemplated educational innovation culminated in the first part of the 1980s, from that point on a cycle whose most important features were the redistribution of access to education in all aspects, and the transition from planning schemes to ex-post evaluation formulas and productivity incentives.
The different facets that the system of higher education has undertaken in the contemporary history of our country have been the result of a convergence of a number of factors and pressures, from wich the most relevant are: a) the relationship between the state and the system of higher education in general and institutions in particular, as well as the manifestation of these relations in organizational policies and reform strategies; b) social demands placed upon the university; c) the movilization of faculty members, students and workers within the institutions; and d) the adaptation to the guidelines generated by international models of higher education development.
The connection between these factors pretends to draw a general perspective with which to explain the changing trends in the higher education system. It is imperative to focus on the analysis of the circumstances surrouding the cycles of expansion and contraction of the system, as well as its main consequences on the contemporary situation.
The
Cycle of Expansion
In 1950 the student population at
the bachelor´s level was under 30,000, representing at the time 1.3%
were between 20 to 24 years old; 6 years later enrollment had doubled and
by 1960 there were more than 80,000 students at the undergraduate level,
that is to say 2.6% of the relevant age group (see table 1).
Several factors coincided in the 1950s
which gave way to the first stage of growth. During that decade the
number of public universities doubled; until 1950 there were twelve institutions
ranked as universities, including the National Polytechnical Institute.
Between 1950 and 1960, 13 public universities were established throughout
the country and in 1953 the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM)
inaugurated its university city campus. During the 1960s the rate of growth
of the previous decade (9.7% annual average) remained the same, due to
mainly the consolidation of institutions established in the 1950s. Four
more universities were founded in that period and despite the fact that
universities outside Mexico City began to meet regional demand, more than
half of university enrollment at the end of the 1960s remained in the capital
city.
In this context, and based on the incipient expansion of universities throughout the country, a stage of rapid and profound transformation in the higher education system took place at the beginning of the 1970s. During that decade, expansion was the key element of the transformation experienced, to the degree that growth exerted pressure on institutions to renew their structure policies and academic and administrative practices.
The decision to increase the dimensions of the system took place in a political context in which a reform of the educational system represented an undeniable priority for the government.
The growth and expansion experienced by the system of higher education took upon itself a series of conditions that modified the organizational structure of university education as such. Among the traits already mentioned, we will recapitulate the following:
First of all, the recomposition of the negotiating table (schedule) among the state, the higher education system, and the demands of different social groups. On one hand, the expansion of access to high school and higher education was a priority for the government, given the social pressures generated by structural processes, particularly that of demographics, the urbanization and emergence of the middle class, and the effects of public education policies in the 1950s and 1960s that favored the growth of basic and secondary education; and also a priority in light of the model of economic development sponsored by the government. On the other hand, following the crisis derived from the events ocurred in 1968 in Mexico, the executive branch sought to reestablish its authority and political prestige among the middle class and intellectuals by promoting the assimilation of dissident groups through traditional cooptation, but also through the generation of employment opportunities in the public administration and by supporting projects that for such groups implied greater participation in, and commitment to, public institutions -as is, of course, the case with educational and cultural entities.
On the economic front, the support offered by the government to promote the development of higher education found backed on the international consensus regarding the relevance of education´s role in development which, in that moment, translated into financing for educational projects on the part of international agencies such as the World Bank, the Interamerican Development Bank and private foundations such as Ford, Rockefeller and Mellon. Politically, the state´s strategy of university expansion can be interpreted as a means of assimilation, but also as the anticipation (response to) of social and political demands -particulary those of the middle class, and as a form of commitment to autonomous universities, an opportunity for these to undertake a process of transformation and development in exchange for serving a growing student body.
Secondly, one must take into account the perception in academia regarding the need for educational reforms and innovation, that in the context previously mentioned, instigated a process of change in the curriculum as well as the design of new organizational styles (departmental, modular, open and multicampus systems), the promotion of new degree programs and the updating of existing ones, the introduction of educational technology and new teaching methods in the areas of design, programming, faculty training and evaluation- in short, a review of the traditional role of faculty and students, as some of the most important changes.
The educational innovations of the 1970s developed parallelly to the traditional systems. As mentioned before, the reform of the university system consisted principally of the creation of new entities rather than the modification of existing ones: the open university, creation of new high schools and units of higher education, graduate studies and research, support for infrastructure related to cultural promotion and the opening of new universities, among others.
One of the most important features of the changes made to the curricula during this period, lies in the fact that they took place in the context of two different positions: the radical discourse derived from the social movements of the 1960s; and the conceptual and methodological components of a pedagogy designed to articulate higher education with the goals of development inherent to industrialized nations. This series of conditions explains, at least partially, the number of obstacles and difficulties encountered by the projects aimed at innovating the university system when they tried to be implemented.
Thirdly, it is worthless the development of administrative and planning functions as an alternative form of university administration, both in the context of the relationship between the state and the system of higher education as well as within the universities themselves.
The presence of new individuals and social actors within the university and the redefinition of the traditional professional, political and social roles contributed to modifying the stage. Expansion allowed access to universities to a more heterogeneous student body -in terms of its social origin and a higher proportion of women; universities ceased to be primarily urban and widen their options for professional development; unions and labor oganizations consolidated their role as promoters of academic community, while the figure of the administrator - official took on enormous relevance in the organization´s political map.
The growth of the university turned it into an important professional market, at least the first wave of graduates formed during that time found open doors to remain in the universities as faculty members or young officials. Moreover, given the simultaneous expansion of the state during this period, the opportunities for working coincided at that time with the increased demand generated by the expansion.
The
Cycle of Stagnation and Diversification
The outstanding characteristic of
the transformations experimented by the university in the 1980s in Mexico,
is signified by the loss of the dynamism that was so evident in the previous
decade. The two fundamental instruments of the educational policy in the
1970s: growth and reform, failed to show the way in the development of
the higher education system.
On one hand, obeying political and economic pressures, the function of the educational reform, that had rested mainly on the establishment of curricular alternatives, gave way to experimentation with less ambitious innovations, such as the creation or specialization of other majors and graduate programs; the reform of study programs and experimentation in the pedagogical aspect, especially opening more avenues to the learning process or what is known as the open university modality, which consists basically of self-instruction, distance education and tutorial services as well as monitoring the learning process.
At the same time, the functions of planning at the institutional and system´s level acquired great importance in the definition of the educational policy. Such functions stemmed from the design and development of strategies and instruments oriented toward the coordination of the great variety of planning organizations based on a series of working agreements between the Public Education Secretariat (SEP), the National Association of Universities and Institutions of Higher Education (ANUIES) and the institutions of higher education.
On the other hand, the strategy regarding the general quantitative growth, was replaced by a policy of decentralization of the organizations in charge of the academic life, in such a way that the system of higher education not only stopped growing at the same rate, but receded in its ability to properly face the demand. This does not mean that, as a system, it had remained unchanged from the beginning to the end of the decade. On the contrary, it showed important modifications as far as the geographical distribution of academic opportunities, the vocational orientation of the school population, the balance between the public and private institutions and the proportion of students enrolled at the universities and technological institutions are concerned. These changes can be referred to in the following terms:
Mexico faced the economic crisis of the early 80s through a financial and fiscal policy; the reform of the public administration was based on cutting public expenses and streamlining the institutions and the burocracy. In this context, the percentage of the national budget assigned to education was not only severely reduced, but also changed its focus. Public investment in education concentrated primarily on making up for the deficiencies in elementary education, and to a lesser degree, on developing new facets of hign school education with a technological focus so that students could enter the qualified work force immediately.
The congruency of this formula can be seen with the changes in priorities that, in the same decade, were being set forth by international organizations such as UNESCO, IDB and the World Bank recommending that funds be channeled preferably to basic and technological education, since the highest rate of return was obtained in these segments of the educational structure
In terms of the higher education system, the decade is characterized by an emphasis on the implemention of planning and evaluation mechanisms and processes of a sectoral nature. If the instruments of change during the expansionary period were growth and innovation, during this period the coordination and rationalization of the system´s units was favored. In fact, during the decade a group of programs and plans was formulated, the most important of which are worth mentioning: the National Plan for Higher Education in Mexico for the 1981 - 1991 period (ANUIES, 1982), the National Program for Higher Education (PRONAES) in 1983 and the Integral Program for the Development of Higher Education (PROIDES) defined by the SEP and ANUIES in 1986. These programs establish the structure of institutional, local, regional and national coordinating entities charged with the implementation of the projects derived from the planning process.
In the 1990s some of the trends developed during the previous decade have been consolidated, while other have changed their course. Next, there is a description of the most notable changes, particularly those which refer to the distribution of educational opportunities.
a) Changes in distribution by institutional
type.
The boom that private institutions
experienced during the decade of the 80s has held steady and allowed them
to increase their presence in higher education. In the first four years
of the 1990s 26 private institutions were inaugurated. The public sector
added only one new university - in the state of Quintana Roo, 11 higher
education technological institutes, and 4 so-called "technological universities".
The creation of new schools, and the consolidation and expansion of those created during the previous decade has shifted the balance between public and private entities significantly. The proportion of students registered in public schools, a figure that remained unchanged during the 80s, fell to 80.9% in 1992. The most recent data is 78%.
b) Tendencies in distribution by
areas of knowledge.
In this regard, the tendencies established
during the past decade have not changed. There continues to be a drop in
enrollment in the fields of agricultural sciences, natural and exact sciences,
and health sciences. In 1989, agricultural sciences had an enrollment of
65,000 students, or 6.2% of total enrollment, a figure that had dropped
to less than 3% by 1994.
The phenomenon is repeated in the case of natural and exact sciences, though at a slower pace. In 1989 the field accounted for 2.7% of total enrollment, but only 1.9% in 1994. A similar trend is observed in health sciences; between 1989 and 1994 its participation dropped from 11% to 9.5%. It is worth noting that in all three fields, total enrollment in 1994 was less than in 1989. The social sciences and management-related fields have maintained their growth tendencies. In 1994, slightly more than 50% of all students were enrolled in degree programs in these areas. An analysis based on specific disciplines shows that this expansion is due to increased demand in accounting, administrative and computer - related fields.
The area of engineering and technological education has seen a slight increase in recent years, growing at an average annual rate of 3.5%. This is due to the enormous demand for professional development in computer science - related disciplines.
Finally, the education and humanities field has maintained its proportion of 3% with respect to total enrollment - unchanged between 1981 and 1989. In this regard. it is worthless that the constant demand for degrees in education - related areas has contributed to relative stability in this field.
c) Changes in enrollment distribution
by gender.
The differences in demand for higher
education, based on gender, represent an interesting phenomenon. Two distinct
tendencies are discernible in this regard: a) the female segment has taken
advantage of higher education opportunities to the point that it represents
almost the same proportion as the male segment; b) the phenomenon of relative
equality among sexes is not only due to an increase in the proportion of
women, but also to a simultaneous dropping in the absolute number of men
who have sought for higher education.
In 1981 the proportion of women integrated into the higher education system was approximately 30%; in 1985 this percentage increased to 35%; in 1989 it reached 39%; and in 1995 it reached 45%. In this context, the average annual growth rate is very different between men and women; while the rate at which females entered the system grew at an average of 5.6% yearly between 1985 and 1994, the growth rate among males was only 0.1% in the same period. During the 1990s, the number of women has grown continually - the 1994 figure is greater by more than 150,000 persons compared to the number in 1985 - while the number of men has remained virtually unchanged. The statistics referring to first-time students at the bachelor´s level show that the number of men entering higher education in 1994 was smaller than those who registered in 1989. The double tendency of "feminization" and "desmasculinization" in higher education enrolment is generalized across different disciplines, although the proportion varies in each one.
With the objective of discerning the general guidelines for the development of the higher education system in Mexico - this presentation has confronted the problem of greater access to the system - the principal public policy positions referring to university education vis-a-vis the trends in matriculation during the corresponding periods. In this regard, we have identified two major cycles of phases, the expansionary phase which includes the period from the 1950s to the beginning of the 80s and the phase of recessionary growth and diversification of the system during the 1980s and 90s.
Different political projects and a diversity of strategies and forms with which to carry them out can be distinguished within each of these phases. For example, the expansionary phase begins with the creation of universities throughout the country, continues with the consolidation of these institutions and with the initial attempts to implement a national higher education system. In the 1970s, an overlap is perceived between the strategy of expansion - which accelerated significantly - and policies aimed at qualitative reform. The cycle comes to an end at the beginning of the 1980s with the government´s decision to reduce and control the growth rate and give priority to policies of deconcentration, quality improvement and centralization of the operating units charged with planning functions.
During the previous and current decades, a clear and progressive loss of dynamism in the growth policy has been observed. In contrast, the availability of public higher education has barely held steady in terms of its social coverage.
At the same time however, the system has transformed itself in several directions. To begin with, transcedental changes that can be grouped together in the notion of rationality, eficacy and efficiency both at the institutional and system level, have taken place in the area of planning and administration. In second place, a series of trends have developed in the area that refers to the course of educational demand; these trends have resulted in the modification of vocational preferences (with an emphasis on degree programs associated with jobs in the services sector and for salaried employees). In third place, new patterns in the redistribution of educational supply are visible. The patterns are derived from the support given to those states with the greatest deficiencies in educational supply, and in the promotion of technological and graduate education, among others. Finally, in contrast with the stagnation in the supply of public higher education, a significant change in the proportion of public and private universities has taken place to the extent that private schools have began to offer an effective option vis-a-vis the public institutions, which have not been able to keep up with demand.
An
Agenda for Discussion
In the international debate over the
desirable innovations for universities, there is a notorious consensus
regarding the fundamental problems - coverage, quality, and the relevance
of the education. One can also sense a focus on the need to promote reforms
with which to overcome the crisis situation, and the recognition of the
key role that higher education plays in helping to achieve the autonomous
technological capacity needed to be competitive in the global market. However,
fundamental differences exist regarding the modalities of the proposed
reforms and the measures considered appropriate to carry out the transformation.
As such, although it is true that there is an ample agreement on the need to reach an equilibrium between the supply and demand for education, as well as the need to form a sufficiently large and high quality body of university graduates, technicians and scientists to meet the challenges of global production and management, it is also true that there is less agreement regarding the measures necessary to meet these objecives: should university systems continue to grow? under what trends of teaching? whose responsibility is the financing the expansion and modernization of universities? who defines the specific changes that must be promoted? These and other questions are crucial in the transition from an agenda of intentions and objectives to a program of concrete action.
To conclude this presentation. I will point out some of the challenges that, in my opinion, must have a timely solution in order to enter the 21st. Century with a stronger university and one that continues to evolve.
Coverage and quality. The dynamics of change over the past decade created a broad array of combinations of academic size and quality, ranging from large institutions with satisfactory levels of quality, very small entities with precarious quality standars, and any number of combinations between these extremes. If in the past the discourse on educational policy placed coverage and quality as alternatives to each other, today it is evident that both objectives -improving higher education levels of social coverage and upgrading the quality of university functions- are unrenounceable and must be sought simultaneously in order to consolidate a system of universities that can compete with the standards observed, in one aspect or another, in developed and newly industrialized nations.
Equality and equity. The objective of equality refers to the capacity of the higher education system to offer opportunities for advanced education to all those persons who meet the necessary academic qualifications, regardless of their social status, sex, age, or any other social or cultural condition. The ability to offer the same opportunities to all requires that there exist an ongoing balancing act between the system´s supply and demand - a difficult task to achieve given the many pressures exerted by external forces and dynamics, such as: demographics; the policies prevalent in the elementary and middle education subsystems; and the labor market. But the issue of equal opportunities within higher education does not nullify the problems which exist between social inequality as a whole and higher education; and there is also the issue of socially egalitarian education - in other words, the group of policies whose goal it is to assure minimum quality standards among the institutions charged with providing a university education. With this objective in mind, a common goal is to avoid that the liberalization of the options for higher education (a process that, in general terms, has compensated for the difficulties encountered in expanding universities) expand the forms of social segmentation present in an institutionally differentiated system.
Institutional diversity. Indeed, the current institutional diversification, derived from the process of privatization of educational services as well as from the process of funcional specialization within the system, has represented a release valve for the financial restrictions of subsidies for public universities, and also provided an answer for the many social and economic demands placed on higher education. Nonetheless, an institutional segment that carries out the functions of higher education, but at an unsatisfactory level in terms of quality, has been adopted on repeated occasions. In this regard, it is necessary to create or strengthen the accreditation bodies and procedures that authorize these institutions to operate, that periodically evaluate the operation of the universities, and that authorize the issuance of degrees and titles. The topic of accreditation and of the agents designated to carry out said accreditation (government agencies, university governing bodies, and non-governmental organizations such as discipline - specific entities and alumni associations) is worthy of further discussion.
Regional Development. There is doubt that the higher education institutions modify the environment in which they are established. The creation of educational entities affects the sorrounding land value by providing urban infrastructure, cultural activities and employment opportunities. Therefore, besides being the focus of attraction for an increased demand for education, they also represent a magnet for regional development. To orient the strategies of decentralization of the educational supply in the context of regional development, and thereby be able to meet the historical lag in the regional distribution of resources, implies channeling investment for the establishment of high quality universities to different regions. Through this policy it is possible to cope with the problem of saturation in the demand for traditional disciplines and contribute to a better distribution of professions across the country. Moreover, it provides an opportunity to disseminate high academic standards (professors and researchers) throughout the nation.
Flexible Curriculum. The university´s ability to meet the demands of the modern world requires substantive changes in the content of all disciplines (what to teach and why), teaching methods and transmission of knowledge (how to teach) and specifically in the area of evaluation and certification, where in the threshold of the XXI Century oudated pedagogical traditions prevail. For the modernization of the higher education system to be effective and reach a superior stage of development it most be an interactive teaching and learning process. It should provide students with a wide range of training options through the flexible curriculum modality, as well as promote continuing education and training as an intrinsic need of the academic and professional ethos.
Integration. One of the challenges of the university system consists mainly in the need to obtain higher levels of integration among: a) the group of institutions which make up the system of higher education, in other words, intra-system integration; b) the system of higher education, that of elementary and middle education, and the system of scientific and technological research, in other words, inter-system integration; c) international integration through agreements with universities in other countries, in the context of regional integration. At both the microsocial level - interaction between individuals and groups - and the macrosocial plane - interaction between organizations, the topic of integration is fundamental in light of the changes in the forms of academic organization, which, undoubtedly, point toward new community oriented forms where the globalization of knowledge becomes an inevitable force.
Financing. The access to better standards and the expansion of capacity to meet demand have as a condition the extension of the financial base of operations. The subject is somewhat problematic if we consider the economic recession being experienced by the countries in the region. Nevertheless, it is indispensable to create and experiment with other alternatives in cooperation with the private and public sectors. Also the recuperation of the cost of enrollment based on grants and loans and any other options as well as providing university services such as hospitals and clinics, tutorial and consulting services, system management and technological designs and patents.
Evaluation and Innovation. The evaluation of yield and productivity has been established in universities as an essential component of the academic process. Evaluation has been related, specifically, to supervision and control of routine tasks, to selective incentives and in some cases to budget and spending accountability. However, evaluation takes on a new meaning the moment it promotes and guides the necessary innovations to advance the objectives of the system´s modernization and its components. In that sense, it is absolutely necessary to establish a connection between the structure and the function of the evaluation and innovation processes.
Governability. University governability is understood as the group of "internal" political relations (between University authorities and all actors of academic life) and "external" political relations (between the university, the public sector and society). It is evident that the long standing pre-eminence of the state-university axis in the definition of such relations is no longer leading the way to establish the priorities and strategies that promote change.
In its place a more complex scheme of relations is taking place, one in which the traditional actors of university policy interact with a number of newly emerging elements (political parties and groups, non-governmental organizations business leaders, professional associations, religious organizations, social movements, etc.). The university´s capacity to articulate stable and productive links that respond to the new demands and responsibilities of today society constitute a key factor in the dynamics of the institution transformation. The seemingly paradoxical equation of greater autonomy and greater rapprochement forces universities to design new instruments with which to satisfy the demands of society and of the state as the new century approaches.
Social Relevance. Although the
institutions can not guarantee employment to their graduates, it is the
responsibility of a university education to contribute to the formation
of a more flexible professional labor market. Diversifying and reshaping
the supply of professional training, improving the quality and applicability
of knowledge, promoting the permanent training of professors, designing
alternatives for the constant growth in demand, orienting students torward
work and productivity rather than exclusively toward being salaried employees,
are but a few of the actions and steps that universities can take in an
effort to break the vicious cycle.
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