"and he sewed up the bludy hyde, and a pipe of wine put in...."
-Old English Folksong
"What's a 'Cubit'......????"
-Noah
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF COMMON USE
Weights: Stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kg
Firkin = 56 pounds = 24.83 kg
Clove = 7 to 10 pounds
Kip = half a ton = 227 kg
Shilling(weight) = 3/5 ounce = 17 grams
Pennyweight = 24 grains
Hundredweight = 112 pounds = 50.8 kg
Fardel = 4 Cloves (28 to 40 pounds)
Burthen = 1 Firkin plus 1 Stone (70 pounds)= 31.78 kg
Measures: Inch = 3 barleycorns laid end to end (the width across the
knuckle of the thumb)
Foot = 36 barleycorns laid end to end (the width of the foot)
Palm = 3"
Hand = 4"
Span = 9" (the distance from the end of the little finger to
the end of the thumb of a spread hand)
Cubit = 18" (the length of the arm from elbow to fingertip)
Yard = the distance from the nose to the fingertips, about 2 cubits.
Pace = 2 1/2 feet (the measure of one stride)
.......or the appropriate measure on the Body of the King.
Ell = 4 feet = 101.92 cm
English Ell = 45 inches = 114.30 cm (14th Cent.)
Flemish Ell = 27 inches = 68.58 cm (14th Cent.)
Scots Ell = 37.2 inches
Fathom = 5 1/2 yards = 5.027 m
Perch = 6 feet = 1.0828 m
Pole/Rod = 5 1/2 yards
Fall = (Scots) 6 (Scots) ells
Sajene (Norse) = 7 feet (used in Russia also)
Half-sajene = 3 1/2 feet (used in Russia also)
Furlong (one furrow-long) = 220 yards = 240.7 m
(pre-17th Cent = 625 feet)
Rood = A rectangle one furlong by one pole
Burgh-Rood = about twenty feet
Cable = 120 fathoms = 603.24 m
Mile = 1000 double paces; 8 furlongs; 880 fathoms; 1.609 Km
Scots Mile = 1984 yards
League = 3 miles = 4.827 Km
Acre = the amount of land a yoke of oxen can plow in one day;
Four roods (40 poles by 4 poles)
Acre = (Scots) a rectangle 40 falls by 4 falls
Ploughgate = roughly 104 acres
Husbandland = 26 acres; 2 oxgangs
Oxgang = 1/8 of a ploughgate; 13 acres
(1 Meter = 118 barleycorns)
Liquids: Noggin/gill = 1/4 U.S pint; 113.5 ml
Mutchkin ( Scot.) = 4 gills
2 Mutchkins = 1 Choppin = 1 Qt.
Firkin = 1/2 kilderkin
Runlet = a scant kilderkin
Kilderkin = 2 firkins; 1/4 tun; 63 U.S. gallons
Barrel = 31.5 U.S. gallons
Hogshead = 2 barrels; 63 U.S. gallons
Pipe/Butt = 2 hogsheads; 1/2 tun; 4 barrels; 126 U.S. gallons
Puncheon = if wine: 84 U.S. gal
if beer/ale: 72 U.S. gallons
Tun = 2 pipes; 4 hogsheads; 8 barrels ( if wine);
252 U.S. gallons
Note: the Scots Pint was equal to 2 Quarts
the Scots Quart was equal to 1 Gallon
the Scots Gallon was equal to 4 Gallons
the Scots Boll was equal to 12 Scots Gallons (dry measure)
the Scots Firlot was equal to 1/4 Boll
the Scots Chalder was equal to 16 Bolls
Numbers: Century = one hundred of anything
Score = twenty of anything
Mongol Measurements: as of circa 1350 in the city of Sarai
Length: 100 pichi = 118 Braza of Venice
Venetian Braza = (unknown)
Weight: 1 mena = 6 lbs. 2 Oz.
20 mena = 1 kanter
Chinese Measurements:
Weight: 1 catty = about 1 1/2 pounds = 681 gr
Islamic Measurements:
Weight: 1 dirham = roughly 1/8 ounce = 3.5 gr
Others: Se'ennight ("Seven Night") = 1 week
Fortnight ("Fourteen Night") = 2 weeks
Widdershins = countersunwise (left to right)
Sunwise = right to left
*
* MONETARY VALUES *
DIOCLETIAN: (3rd Cent. CE)
1 Libra = 408 g. of gold = 20 gold Solidus
1 Solidus = 12 silver denarius
The above was the basic value system that Western European, Byzantine
and Islamic coinage was based around. An equal weight of silver was valued at
1/12 that of an equal weight of gold.
7th Century CE: 1 solidus = 40 denarius
Bear in mind that purchasing power, and the actual gold and silver
content of coins, varied. The following is ONLY a rough approximation of
values, though it's pretty close, based on 14th century values.
ENGLAND/FRANCE:
1 Lb. of pure silver = 1 Livre / English pound
1 Livre / Pound = 240 silver pennies
1 Livre / Pound = 20 Shillings / Sou
1 Shilling / Sou = 12 silver pennies
In France, 20 sous was approximately one days pay of one knight, or
four archers, or hiring a cart and two horses for twenty days, or the pay of
a peasant for two years.
ITALY:
1 Florin/Ducat = 3.5 grams of pure gold
The Florin, Ducat, Franc, Livre, Ecu, Mark, and Pound are more or less
equivalent, depending on the period, and the amount of actual gold/silver
content.
MONGOLIA:
20 Pounds of silver = 1 sumo
1 sumo = 120 tamgha
SCOTLAND: (values of coins)
2 Doits = 1 Bodle
2 Bodles = 1 Plack or Groa(t)
3 Placks = 1 Shilling
40 Placks = 1 Merk (Mark)
20 Shillings = 1 Pound
Circa 1300, the Merk seems to have been valued at 2/3 of an English
Pound, (13 Shillings, 4 Pence), and the Florin worth 18 Scots shillings in
1431 (8 shillings of actual silver.)
INFLATION IN SCOTLAND
The Pound (1 lb. of silver) would be rendered into 240 pennies, in an
absolutely pure coinage. Inflation, and debasement of the currency, is
illustrated in the following table:
1150 CE: 1 Pound of silver = 252 pennies
1367 CE: 1 Pound of silver = 352 pennies
1393 CE: 1 Pound of silver = 528 pennies
1440 CE: 1 Pound of silver = 768 pennies
1451 CE: 1 Pound of silver = 1,152 pennies
1483 CE: 1 Pound of silver = 1,680 pennies
Up to about 1368 CE, the English and Scots coinage seem to be on a par
with each other, but in the reign of James III, four Scots Pounds equalled one
English Pound, and by 1603 CE, -twelve- Scots Pounds equalled one English
Pound.
ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND:
The basic unit of coinage was the silver Penny, which was worth about
one day's labour.
*
THE COST OF KNIGHTHOOD
Knighthood was so expensive that many persons, although possessing
the ways and means, refused dubbing to avoid the expenses of knighthood.
In Genoa, in the first half of the 13th century:
A Helm cost 16 to 32 shillings
A Hauberk cost 120 to 152 shillings;
with accessories the cost went to about 200 shillings.
In late 13th Century England, there were some 1,250 knights (earls
and barons included), of whom only some 500 were capable of mobilization.
At the same time, there were up to 1,750 non-knights who had sufficient
revenue to become knights if they so desired. The Crown, made 26
attempts between 1224 and 1272 to enlist all men possessing the knightly
fee of 20 pounds.
Payments in lieu of Knightly service:
SCUTAGE:
At the end of the 12th Century, the 50 knights of Bury St. Edmunds
paid the abbot 29 pence every 20 weeks rather than mount watch. The rate
of scutage in England in the second half of the 12th Century was levied
at the rate of 6 pence per day, that is 240 pence or 1 pound per the
standard 40 day period of service. Contamine also says that, "In 1227
Frederick II, preparing his crusade, ordered that in the kingdom of
Sicily 'every fief-holder should pay for each fief eight ounces of gold
and every eight fiefs should provide a knight'; in other words, from each
group of eight fees the King-Emperor would get one knight and 64 ounces
of gold which represented about a year's pay at current rates."
MILITIAS:
One of the uses of the money thus collected was the payment of
militia. In Perugia and Florence in the 13th Century, the militiamen
were paid from the first day of the campaign. This pay amounted to 5
shillings per foot soldier, 10 shillings for a man with one horse, 15 for
a man with two horses (Perugia), 3 for crossbowmen, 2 shillings 8 pence
for archers, 2/6 for pavasiers and 2 shillings for ordinary foot soldiers
in Florence.
RENTS:
Fief rents were, in effect, annual pensions paid for eventual
service. (Keep in mind that this is not the actual pay drawn while on
service.) Contamine gives the case of Fernand de Jean as an example. This
worthy, a Castilian knight who had abandoned the service of the king of
Castile, had been in receipt of an annual income of 300 livres from that
source. For his first year in service to Philip III of France, he
received the same sum for life in exchange for homage to Phillip III
above all others (except Philip's nephews, sons of his sister Blanche,
and Fernando of Castile). He was required to serve Philipe with 10
knights freely for 40 days a year, presenting himself and men within 6
weeks of summons. He was only required to serve only the lands of the
king of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal, in the kingdom of Navarre, in
Gascony and in the county of Toulouse. After the 40 days he would draw a
daily wage of 7 shillings 6 pence (tournois), with no provisions for
replacing of lost horses.
Contamine gives the daily rates for soldiers in England and France
c. 1150-c.1300 as:
Knights foot soldiers
1150-70 6d
c.1165 8d 1d
c.1196 1s
c.1215 2s 2d
c.1250 2s
c.1300 2,3,or 4s* 2d+
France (in livres tournois)
1202 7s 6d 10d
1295 10s, 12s 6d, or 15s** 12d++
*in silver: 31.12g, 46.49g or 62.24g
+in silver: 2.6g
**in silver: 33.48g, 41.85g, or 50.22g
++in silver: 3.34g
In the Crecy campaign, of the Hundred Years War, the pay scale was:
For a Knight-Banneret: Four shillings a day
For a Knight: Two shillings a day
For a Man-at-Arms: One shilling a day
For a mounted Archer: sixpence a day
For a foot Archer: threepence a day
For a foot Soldier: twopence a day
Rates of pay, per day, for the Agincourt campaign:
Dukes: 13 shillings 4 pence
Earls: 6 shillings 8 pence
Barons: 4 shillings
Knights: 2 shillings
Other men-at-arms: 1 shilling
Archers: 6 pence
The total number recruited was 2000 knights and men-at-arms and 8000 archers.
(In comparison, in civil life a Master Carpenter in England, at
the time of the Crecy campaign, received threepence a day, and a
reaper twopence. Land rented for fourpence an acre per year.)
*
A KING'S RETINUE AND AGINCOURT
I thought it might perhaps be instructive to look at an example of a King's
Retinue on a campaign. Specifically that of King Henry V in his campaign into
France which came to such a dramatic close with Agincourt (Oct 25, 1415).
120 Knight with Mynors
25 Master Gunners with others
50 Servitor gunners (2 each)
1 Stuffer of Bacynets
12 Armurers
3 Kings of Arms
1 Mareschal of Arms
4 Valletz Peyntours
28 Sergeant with Yeoman of the Pavilions
1 Phistian {with 3 archers}
20 Surgeons
60 Master of the Horse and grooms
1 Surveyor of the stable
1 Clerk of the Stable
1 Clerk of the Avenrie
12 yomen Purveyours
1 Grome of the Horses
2 King's Guides by Night
12 Smiths
9 Sadlers
1 Clerk of the Marshalcy
1 Cofferer of the King's Household
41 Esquire with yomen
8 Servitors of the King
8 Yomen of the King
86 Yomen of the King's Household
13 Yomen
3 Pages, Messangers of the King's Chamber
3 Yomen of the King's Poultry
8 Yomen of the Bakehouse
3 Clerks of the Kitchin, Pantry and Buttery
1 Clerk Yoman of the Napery
3 Clerks of the Spicery
1 Clerk of Poultry
2 Clerks of the Scullery
15 Scullery
1 Clerk of the Bakehouse
1 Clerk of the Hall
6 Carpenters of the Hall
19 Labourers of the Hall
2 Bowgemen
2 Clerks of the wardrobe
1 Tailor (w/2 archers)
26 Cordwaners
124 Master Carpenter and other Carpenters
6 Fletchers
6 Bowyers
6 Wheelwrights
2 Colliers
120 Labourers
2 Almoigners
2 Law Clerks (with 2 archers)
16 Chaplains
14 Others of the Revestry
15 Minstrels
Total : 967
******************************************************************************
* USEFUL MODERN MEASUREMENTS*
1 square mile = 640 acres = 259 hectares
Apothecaries' Weights: 1 scruple = 20 grains
1 dram = 3 scruples
1 ounce = 8 drams
1 pound = 12 ounces
Approximations: 1 teaspoon holds about: 60 drops
5 ccs
1 tablespoon holds about: 1/2 fl. oz.
3 teaspoons
1 tablespoon holds about: 15 ccs
15 grams
1/8 gill
1/16 cup
"a few grains" = less than about 1/8 teaspoon
a dash = about 1/4 to 1/3 teaspoon
a pinch = about 1/8 to 1/4 teaspoon
1 saltspoon = about 1/8 teaspoon
1 fluid drachm = about 3/4 teaspoon
******************************************************************************
"Friar Bacon? Oh, just a harmless old coot..why?"
-anonymous
CHEMICAL NAMES
Many of the older names for certain chemicals are no longer in use. The
Author and the publisher assume no responsibility for any errors that might
occur in this list. Further information would be welcomed.
OLD NAME NEW NAME
Acid Potassium Sulphate Potassium Bisulphate
Acid of Sugar Oxalic Acid
Alcali Volatil Ammonium Hydroxide
Alcohol Sulphuris Carbon Disulphide
Alumina Aluminium Hydroxide
Ammonia Ammonium Hydroxide
Antimony Black Antimony Trisulphide
Antimony Bloom Antimony Trioxide
Antimony Glance Antimony Trisulphide
Antimony Red Antimony Oxysulphide
Antimony Vermillion Antimony Oxysulphide
Aqua Fortis Nitric Acid
Aqua Regia Nitro Hydrochloric Acid
Bitter Salt Magnesium Sulphate
Blue Copperas Copper Sulphate
Bone Ash Impure Calcium Carbonate
Bone Black Animal Charcoal
Brimstone Sulphur
Butter of Antimony Antimony Trichloride
Butter of Tin Stannic Chloride Hydrated
Butter of Zinc
(killed spirits) Zinc Chloride
Calomel Mercurous Chloride
Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide
Chile Nitre Sodium Nitrate
Chile Saltpeter Sodium Nitrate
Chromic Acid Chromium Trioxide
Copperas (Iron Sulphate) Ferrous Sulphate
Corrosive Sublimate Mercuric Chloride
Corundum Aluminium Oxide
Ferro Prussiate Potassium Ferricyanide
Flores Martis Anhydrous Ferric Chloride
Flowers of Sulphur Sulphur
Gallic Acid 3,4,5,Trihydroxybenzoic Acid
Grain Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol
Grain Vitriol Ferrous Sulphate
Green Vitriol Ferrous Sulphate
Hard Oil Boiled Linseed Oil
Iron Perchloride Ferric Chloride
Iron Pernitrate Ferric Nitrate
Iron Protochloride Ferrous Chloride
Iron Persulphate Ferric Sulphate
Jeweler's Etchant 3 g. Silver Nitrate
+ 3 g. Nitric Acid
+ 3 g. Mercurous Nitrate
+ 100 cc Water
Killed Spirits Zinc Chloride
K.N.S. Solution 10 g. Ammonium Carbonate
+ 20 g. Ammonium Peroxydisulphide
+ 200 cc Ammonium Hydroxide
Lime Calcium Oxide
Liver of Sulphur Melted Potassium Carbonate + Sulphur
Lunar Caustic Silver Nitrate Toughened
Muriate of Mercury Mercuric Chloride
Muriatic Acid Hydrochloric Acid
Nitre Potassium Nitrate
or: Sodium Nitrate
Nitrate of Silver Silver Nitrate
Nordhausen Acid Fuming Sulphuric Acid
Oil of Mars Deliquesent Anhydrous Ferric Chloride
Oil of Vitriol Sulphuric Acid
Orthophosphoric Acid Phosphoric Acid
Oxymuriate of Mercury Mercuric Chloride
Oxymuriate of Potassium Potassium Chlorate
Pearl Ash Potassium Carbonate
Plumbago Graphite
Prussic Acid Hydrocyanic Acid
Purple Crystals Potassium Permanganate
Quicksilver Mercury
Red Prussiate of Potash Potassium Ferricyanide
Sal Ammoniac Ammonium Chloride
Salts of Lemon Potassium Acid Oxalate 5% solution
Salts of Sorrol Potassium Acid Oxalate 5% solution
Salt of Tartar Potassium Carbonate
Salt of Vitriol Zinc Sulphate
Salt of Wormwood Potassium Carbonate
Saltpeter Potassium Nitrate
Sal Volatile Ammonium Carbonate
Slaked Lime Calcium Hydroxide
Salts of Hartshorn Ammonium Carbonate
Soda Sodium Carbonate
Soot Carbon
Spencer's Acid 3 g. Silver Nitrate
+ 3 g. Nitric Acid
+ 3 g. Mercurous Nitrate
+ 100 cc Water
Spirits of Hartshorn Ammonia Water
Spirits of Salt Hydrochloric Acid
Spirit of Nitrous Ether Ethyl Nitrite
Spirits of Wine Ethyl Alcohol
Sugar of Lead Lead Acetate
Sulphuric Ether Ethyl Ether
Sweet Spirits of Nitre Ethyl Nitrite Spirit
Tetrachloromethane Carbon Tetrachloride
Tincture Ferric Chloride Ferric Chloride
+ Ethyl Alcohol
Tincture of Steel Ferric Chloride
+ Ethyl Alcohol
Tin Salt Stannous Chloride
Verdigris Copper Acetate
Vitriol Sulphuric Acid
Water Glass Sodium Silicate
Whiting Calcium Carbonate
Yellow Prussiate of Potash Potassium Ferrocyanide
NB: Some of these names were used in children's chemistry sets as late as
the mid-1950's CE. I repeat: Neither the Author, nor the publisher,
are responsible for any errors that may have ocurred in transcription
or printing, and assume NO responsibility for the use thereof. Use at
your own risk.
I do, however, wholeheartedly recommend getting hold of a book:
Henley's Formulas for Home and Workshop
Gardner D. Hiscox, M.E.; Avenel 1979
This little gem, a facsimile reprint of the 1927 Revised Edition, gives
more information than anybody will know what to do with. If you are at
all involved with period arts/crafts, you NEED this book.
*
STAINS MENTIONED IN OLD FORMULAS
(No Warranty is expressed or implied)
NAME NATURAL STAIN
Alkanet Root Alkanna Tinctoria
Asphaltum Mixture of natural bitumens & asphalt
Fustic Pulverized dried Sumac leaves
Logwood Haematoxylin
NAME CHEMICAL STAIN
Verdigris Cupric Acetate
Madder Acid Alizarine Blue
Pearlash Potassium Carbonate Anhydrous
Soot Carbon
Common Soda Bicarbonate
Dragon's Blood A resin extracted from the fruit of
the maylayan rattan palm
Purple Crystals Potassium Permanganate
*******************************************************************************
HERBAL NAMES
Note: the Author and the Publisher assume NO responsibility for any errors
that may have ocurred in this list thru transcription or printing, nor
is any responsibility assumed for any use thereof. Use at your own risk!
COMMON NAME MUNDANE NAME LATIN NAME
Adder's Mouth Stich Wort Stellaria media
Adder's Meat Microstylis ophioglossiodes
Adder's Tongue Dogstooth Violet Erythronium Americanum
Ass's Ear Comfrey Symphytum officinale
Bear's Ear Auricula Primula auricula
Bear's Foot Stinking Hellbore Helleborus foetious
Beehive Snail Plant Medicago scuttellata
Beggar's Tick Cockhold Bidens frondosa
Bird's Eye False Hellebore Adonis vernalis
Bird's Tongue European Ash Fraxinus excelsior
Black Boy Resin Xanthorrhoea arborea
Bloody Fingers Foxglove Digitalis purpurea
Bull's Eyes Marsh Marigold Caltha palustris
Bull's Foot Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara
Calf's Snout Toadflax Linaria vulgaris
Catgut Hoary Pea Tephrosia virginiana
Cat's Eye Star Scabious Scabiosa stellata
Cat's Foot Canada Snake Root Asarum canadense
Cat's Foot/Paw Ground Ivy Nepeta glechoma
Cat's Milk Wartwort Euphorbia helioscopia
Chicken Toe Crawley Root Corallorhiza ordontorhiza
Cock's Comb Yellow Rattle Rinanthus christagalli
Cow's Tail Canada Fleabane Erigeron canadense
Crow Foot Cranesbill Geranium maculatum
Devil's Milk Wartwort Euphorbia helioscopia
Dog's Tongue Conoglossum officinale
Donkey's Eyes Cowage Plant Mucuna puriens (seeds)
Dove's Foot Cranesbill Geranium sylvaticum
Dragon's Claw Crawley Root Corallorrhiza odontorrhiza
Dragon's Eye Nephalium loganum
Duck's Foot American Mandrake Podophyllum peltatum
Eye of Newt (Unknown) (Unknown)
Fairy Fingers/Gloves Foxglove Digitalis purpurea
Flesh and Blood Tormentil Potentilla tormentilla
Fox Tail Club Moss Lycopodium clavatum
Foal's Foot Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara
Frog's Foot Bulbous Buttercup Ranunculus bulbosis
Goat's Beard Vegetable Oyster Tragopogon porrofolius
Goat's Foot Ash Weed Aegopodium podograria
Hare's Foot Clover Trifolium arvense
Hedgehogs Medicago intertexta
Horse Tail Scouring Rush Equisetum hyemale
Horse Tongue Hart's Tongue Scolopendrium vulgare
COMMON NAME MUNDANE NAME LATIN NAME
Hound's Tongue Vanilla Leaf Liatris odoratissima
Jew's Ear Fungus on Elder/Elm Peziza auricula
Lamb's Tongue Ribwort Plantain Plantago lancelolata
Lizard's Tail Breast Weed Sarurus cernuus
Lizard's Tongue Sauroglossum
Mother's Heart Shepherd's Purse Capsella bursa pastoris
Mouse Ear Mouse Blood Wort Hieracium pilosella
Mouse Tail Common Stonecrop Sedum acre
Negro Head Vegetable Ivory Phytelephas macrocarpa
Old Man's Beard Fringe Tree Chionanthus virginica
Ox Tongue Bugloss Anchusa officinallis
Rabbit's Foot Field Clover Trifolium arvense
Shepherd's Heart Shepherd's Purse Cabella bursa pastoris
Snake Head Balmony Chelone glabra
Snake Milk Blooming Spurge Euphorbia corollata
Snake's Tongue Adder's Tongue Fern Ophioglossum vulgatum
Squirrel Ear White Plantain Goodyear repens
Stag Horn Club Moss Lycopodum clavatum
Stinking Goose Foot Chenopodium foetidum
Swine Snout Dandelion Taraxcum dens leonis
Toad Toadflax Linaria vulgaris
Unicorn's Horn False Unicorn Helgonias dioica
Wolf's Claw Lycopodium Lycopodium clavatum
Wolf's Foot Bugle Weed Lycopus virginicus
*******************************************************************************
ROMAN NUMERALS
I - 1 VI - 6 XL - 40
II - 2 VII - 7 L - 50
III - 3 VIII - 8 LX - 60
IIII or IV - 4 IX - 9 XC - 90
V - 5 X - 10 C - 100
D - 500 M - 1000
NOTE: in manuscript, III and IIII sometimes written iij and iiij
*****************************************************************************
CANONICAL HOURS THE WATCHES OF THE NIGHT
Matins and Lauds: between midnite and dawn Evening
Prime: 6 am (sunrise) Midnight
Tierce: 9 am (also called Underne) Cock-crow
Sext: 12 noon Morning
None: midafternoon; 3 pm
Vespers: late afternoon; before nightfall
Compline: before bed
THE SACRAMENTS HOLY GHOST THE DEADLY SINS
Baptisim Wisdom Avarice
Ordination Understanding Sloth
Penance Counsel Envy
Extreme Unction Fortitude Anger
Confirmation Knowledge Pride
Marriage Piety Gluttony
Eucharist Fear of God Lust
THE SPLENDID VIRTUES THE ORDERS OF ANGELS
Faith Hope Charity Seraphim Cherubim Thrones
Prudence Temperance Fortitude Dominions Powers Principalities
Justice Archangels Angels
THE LIBERAL ARTS
Trivium: Grammar Logic Rhetoric
Quadrivium: Arithmetic Geometry Astronomy Music
THE NINE MALE WORTHIES
the Ancients: the Jews: the Christians:
Hector of Troy Joshua Arthur of England
Alexander the Great King David Charlemagne
Julius Caesar Judas Maccabeus Godfrey of Boullion
THE NINE FEMALE WORTHIES
The Ancients: The Jews:
Semiramis, Queen of Assyria Deborah, the Judge of Israel
Tenthesilea, Last of the Great Amazons Jael, the Kenite
Tomyris, from the City of Tamyris Judith, Lady of Bethulia
The Christians:
Maude of Germany
Elizabeth of Castile
Joan of Naples
THE (14) HOLY MARTYRS
St. Catherine St. Margaret
St. Achatius St. Giles St. George St. Christopher
St. Blaise St. Cyriac St. Denis St. Erasmus
St. Eustace St. Pantaleon St. Vitus St. Barbara
THE (16) PEASANT SAINTS
St. Genevieve St. Simon Stylites St. Veronica St. Macarius
St. Lomer St. Anastasius St. Blandina St. Henry of France
St. Basilides St. Quirinus St. Nabor St. Nazarius
St. Crescentia St. Modestius St. Potamiana St. Basilides
*****************************************************************************
THE HERALDIC TINCTURES
The Colours: Gules (Gu.)-red Bleu-celeste (Bl.C.)-sky-blue
Azure (Az.)-deep blue Murrey (Mu.)-mulberry
Sable (Sa.)-black Sanguine (S.)-blood-red
Vert (Vt.)-green Tenne (T.)-tawny orange
Purpure (Purp.)-purple (note: the above four are not
used at this time in
the SCA)
The Metals: Or (Or.)- gold or yellow
Argent (Arg.)- silver or white
The Furs: Ermine (Erm.)- white (NOT silver) with black "tails"
Vair (Vair)- white (NOT silver) and blue "pelts" or "bells"
Potent (Pot.)- White (NOT silver) and blue "T" shapes
Plumetty (Plum.)- of feather designs
Papillone (Pap.)- of scaled designs
Variants of Ermine: Ermines - white tails on black
Variants of Ermine: Erminois - black tails on gold
Pean - gold tails on black
Variants of Vair: Counter Vair
Vair en Pale (You will have to see
Vair en Pointe illustrations of these
to fully understand.)
Variants of Potent: Counter-potent
Potent en Pointe
****************************************************************************
THE SEVEN CRUSADES
The First Crusade: 1096-1099
The Second Crusade: 1146-1149
The Third Crusade: 1189-1192
The Fourth Crusade: 1202-1204
The Fifth Crusade: 1218-1221
The Sixth Crusade: 1228-1229
The Seventh Crusade: 1245-1269
Other Crusades:
The Children's Crusade: 1212
The Crusade of Thibault of Champagne-Navarre
and Richard of Cornwall 1248-1252
The Crusade of Louis IX of France to Tunis 1270
The Crusade of Nicopolis 1396
The Albigensian Crusade 1208-1229
*****************************************************************************
THE PATRON SAINTS OF THE NATIONS
with their Saints' Days
"God, Saint George and England!"
-Henry V
Alsace: Odila, Dec. 13
Aragon: George, April 23
Armenia: Gregory the Illuminator, Sept. 30
Bartholomew, Aug. 24
Asia Minor: John the Evangelist, Dec. 27
Bavaria: Kilian, Nov. 13
Belgium: Joseph, March 19
Bohemia: Ludmilla, Sept. 16
Wenceslaus, Sept. 28
Corsica: Julia of Corsica, May 22
Crete: Titus, Jan. 26
Cyprus: Barnabas, June 11
Czechoslovakia: Procopius, July 8
Wenceslaus, Sept. 28
Denmark: Ansgar, Feb. 3
Canute,Jan. 19
England: George, April 23
Finland: Henry of Uppsala, Jan. 19
France: Denis, Oct. 9
Frisia: Willibrord, Nov. 7
Genoa: George, April 23
Georgia (Russia): Nino, Dec. 15
Germany: George, April 23
Greece: Andrew, Nov. 30
Holland: Willibrord, Nov. 7
Hungary: Stephen I, Aug. 16
Ireland: Brigid, Feb. 1
Patrick, Mar. 17
Italy: Catherine of Siena, April 29
Lithuania: Casimir,March 4
Madrid: Isadore the Farmer, May 15
Milan: Veronica, Jan. 13
Moravia: Cyril, Feb 14
Norway: Olaf, July 29
Paris: Genevieve, Jan. 3
Persia: Maruthas, Dec. 4
Poland: Casimir, March 4
Portugal: Vincent, Jan. 22
Prussia: Adalbert, Jun. 20
Romania: Nicetas, Jun. 22
Rome: Philip Neri, May 26
Russia: Andrew, Nov. 30
Nicholas, Dec. 6
Ruthenia: Bruno, May 17
Scandanavia: Ansgar, Feb. 3
Scotland: Andrew, Nov. 30
Silesia: Hedwig, Oct. 15
Slovakia: Our Lady of the Assumption, Aug. 15
Spain: James, July 25
Sweden: Ansgar, Feb. 3
Switzerland: Gall, Oct. 16
Venice: George, April 23
Wales: David, March 1
note: if no Saint is listed as a National Patron, it means either that the
Saint in question was canonized after 1650, or none was found. More
information is solicited in this matter, please!
****************************************************************************
THE CHRISTIAN CALENDAR:
a short explanation
The Christian calendar is based around Easter, which is a
movable holiday. It is the first Sunday after the full Moon
which happens upon or next after the 21st of March, and if the
full Moon happens on a Sunday, then Easter is the next Sunday
following.
The rest of the Calendar of the Christian Church has fixed Feasts,
and movable Feasts. The Fixed are listed in a "Boke of Days" under
their appropriate date. The Movable are calculated as follows:
Septuagesima Sunday is nine weeks before Easter
Sexagesima Sunday is eight weeks before Easter
Quinquagesima Sunday is seven weeks before Easter
Shrove Tuesday is the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday
Ash Wednesday is the beginning of Lent, 40 days before Easter
Quadragesima Sunday is six weeks before Easter
Maundy Thursday is the Thursday before Good Friday
Good Friday is the Friday before Easter
Holy Saturday is the Saturday before Easter
Easter: see above
Rogation-tide is the three days before Rogation Sunday
Rogation Sunday is five weeks after Easter
Ascension Day is forty days after Easter
Whit-Sunday,or Whitsuntide, is seven weeks after Easter
Trinity-Sunday is eight weeks after Easter
THE LITURGICAL COLOURS
White: Christmas, Easter, Corpus Christi, The Feast of St. Mary, and Feasts
of Saints that are not Martyrs.
Red: Pentecost, Palm Sunday, Holy Cross, and Martyred Saints.
Green: The period following Trinity and Epiphany.
Purple: Advent, Lent.
Black: Funerals and Requiems (modern usage)
Yellow: Is attributed to Judas, and was commonly mandated to be worn by
Jews, in Medieval times.
Blue: Is associated with the Virgin Mary.
The "Book of Common Prayer" of the Protestant Episcopal Church has a
very fine series of tables with which to find Easter Day.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE PAGAN HOLIDAYS
The Greater Sabbats are: Samhain (New Year): October 31st
Imbolc (Winter Purification): February 1st
(note: names may vary) Beltane (Fertility): May 1st
Lughnasadh (Death of the Sacred King): Aug 1st
The Lesser Sabbats are: Summer Solstice: June 21st
Spring Equinox: March 21st
Winter Solstice: December 21st
Autumn Equinox: September 21st
The above dates are those that have become traditional in many circles.
However, these are calculated, in reality, differently than our mundane
calendar's occasionally arbitrary dates. Remember, the Celts reckoned
the day from sundown to sundown, rather than from midnite to midnite,
as we do, so: the Lesser Sabbats are determined by the Sun entering the
Cardinal Elemental Zodiacal (C.E.Z.) Sign.
Each of the Greater Sabbats are thus celebrated on the fortieth
evening following the DAY of the actual Solistice or Equinox.
If the event (entering the C.E.Z. Sign) occurs during darkness, the
Sabbat is celebrated that night, if during daylight, the night before.
Not all of the Pagan holidays are quite the same from Tradition to
Tradition, i.e.:
January 1: Birth of the Sacred King
February 2: The Goddess names and arms him
March 23: He "rides forth in splendor"
April 30: He becomes the Lover of the Goddess
June 24: He is killed by his Dark self
August 2: He is (symbolically) eaten as/in grain
September 22: His Death is mourned by the Goddess
October 31: He is conducted to the Other World
from whence He escapes
December 22: He awaits Death
******************************************************************************
THE MENDICANT ORDERS:
Franciscans: Grey friars
Dominicans: Black friars
Carmelites: White friars
Trinitarians: Red friars
******************************************************************************
******************************************************************************
THE NAMES OF THE DAYS OF THE WEEK
ENGLISH LATIN OLD ENGLISH TRANSLATION
Monday Lunae Dies Monan Daeg (Day of the Moon)
Tuesday Tiwas Daeg Dies Martis (Day of Mars (Tyr)
Wednesday Mercurii Dies Wodnes Daeg (Day of Mercury (Woden)
Thursday Dies Jovis Thunres Daeg (Day of Jove (Thor)
Friday Dies Veneris Frize Daeg (Day of Venus (Freya)
Saturday Saturni Dies Saeturnes Daeg (Day of Saturn)
Sunday Dies Solis Sunnan Daeg (Day of the Sun)
******************************************************************************
NEW WORLD VEGETABLES
Corn (maize) potatoes tomatoes
red peppers sweet potatoes tapioca
chocolate pumpkins squashes
non-soy beans peanuts coconuts
pineapples strawberries raspberries
vanilla papayas guavas
******************************************************************************
ESTIMATED IQ'S OF FAMOUS PEOPLE IN PERIOD
From a study which appears in: "Genetic Study of Genius" Vol. 2, by
Catherine Morse Cox, copyright 1926 Stanford Press. The IQ's are
estimated based upon various analytical elements, including performance
before the age of 17. Presumably, these are on the Stanford-Binet scale.
Galileo (Astronomer) 145
Leonardo da Vinci (Artist, inventor) 135
Baruch Spinoza (Philosopher) 130
(Note that those below this level would likely be
below the 98th percentile required for MENSA)
Hernando Cortes (conqueror of Mexico) 115
Martin Luther (Religious reformer) 115
Rembrandt van Riijn (Dutch Painter) 110
Copernicus (Astronomer) 105
Cervantes (Writer: Don Quixote) 105
******************************************************************************
THE COST OF WAR
The "Wars of the Roses" cost the lives of: Two Kings
One Prince
Ten Dukes
Two Marquesses
Twenty-one Earls
Twenty-seven Lords
One hundred and thirty-three Knights
Four hundred and fifty-one Esquires
and eighty-four thousand, nine hundred and ninety-eight common soldiers.
This calculation does not count wounded, disabled or missing in action.
******************************************************************************
SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
"Nah..it was Phillip Marlowe..or Bacon..
might have been Walt Kelly, though..."
-Anne Hathaway
Titus Andronicus Hamlet
King Henry VI Pt 1 All's Well that Ends Well
Love's Labour's Lost Measure for Measure
The Comedy of Errors Troilus and Cressida
The Two Gentlemen of Verona Othello
A Midsummer Night's Dream King Lear
King Henry VI Pt. 2 Macbeth
King Henry VI Pt. 3 Antony and Cleopatra
King Henry V Coriolanus
The Taming of the Shrew Timon of Athens
The Merry Wives of Windsor Pericles
Much Ado About Nothing Cymbeline
As You Like It The Tempest
Twelfth Night The Winter's Tale
King Henry VIII
******************************************************************************
PERIOD GAMES FOR CHILDREN
"Hey, Kid! Wanna Play?"
-Anonymous
The following are games known to have been played by children in
the Medieval/Renaissance period:
Knucklebones/Jacks Dolls Toy Mill
Soap bubbles Pets Hobbyhorse
Fife/drum Mud Pies Toy Soldiers
Hoops Pig's-bladder balloon Make-Believe
Buck Buck "Store" Building with bricks
Bounce the Baby Leapfrog Tug of War
Odds or Evens Running the Gantlet Blindman's Bluff
Somersaults Headstands Swings
Sandpiles Climbing a Fence King of the Mountain
Tilting Riding a Fence Beat the Kettle
Stilts Walk, Moon, Walk Loggats
Tipcat Marbles Baste the Bear
Cellar Doors Wrestling Crack The Whip
Span Button Follow the Leader Swinging on a Rail
Balancing a Broom Piggyback Whipping Tops
Frau Rose Making "cheeses" Climbing a Tree
Swimming Shouting into a Barrel Rattles
Carry My Lady to London Throwing rocks Mumblety-peg
Ring-Around-the-Rosie Dice Horsie
Riding Barrels
*****************************************************************************
TUNINGS OF PERIOD FRETTED INSTRUMENTS
TUNING: The strings are named low to high, i.e. in the mandolin
tuning given, G D A E, the "G" is the lowest note, and the "E" is
the highest. The strings are numbered with the highest pitched being
#1 and proceeding thru the lowest string, which has the highest
number....confusing, but traditional.
* Modern Instruments (standardized tunings) given for comparison:
Guitar Family:
Modern Guitar: E A D G B E
D A D G B D ("Double "D" " Good for modal ballads
in "D")
D A D G B E ("Drop "D" ", good for stuff in "D")
D A D D A D (I use this one for simulating an Oud,
for belly dance music)
"Terz" Guitar: G C F Bb D G
1/4 size Guitar: A D G C# E A
Requinto: G C F Bb D G
Vihuelita: C F Bb D G (the 4th string, the "F", is tuned an
octave high in a ukelele style re-entrant
tuning)
Tenor Guitar: G D A E (one octave lower than a mandolin)
G D B E (1st four strings of the modern guitar)
G D B E (same as above, with the 4th string tuned an
octave high, in a re-entrant tuning)
To tune a guitar to "lute" tuning, use a Tenor Lute (see below)
tuning from "E": E A D F# B E, for "old" tuning, or just leave
it in EADGBE, for "new" tuning.
Mandolin Family:
Mandolin: G D A E (same as violin)
Mandola: C G D A
Octave Mandolin: G D A E (one octave lower than a Mandolin)
Mando-Cello: C G D A (one octave lower than a Mandola)
Bouzouki: D A D A
D G B E
G D A E
D A F C
Others:
Ukelele: A D F# B (4th string, "A", in higher octave,
re-entrant tuning)
Tiple: (Pronounced TEE-play) C E A D (South American version. 4th
string, "C", is octaved)
Tiple: (Pronounced TIPPLE) A D F# B (North American version. 2nd, 3rd
and 4th, "A", "D", and "F#", are
octaved)
* Older Instruments (the tuning may or may not be these same tones,
but the relationships between the strings will remain the same):
Lute: "new" tuning: 8-course E# B A D G C# E A (descant tuning: see below)
"new" tuning (Virdung ca. 1500): G C F A D G (the "viel accord")(alto)
"old" tuning: 8-course E# B A D G C# E# A (descant tuning: see below)
"Sharp" tuning: G C F A C E
"Flat" tuning: G C F Ab C Eb
"Accord Nouveau": A D F A D F (17th Cent.)
Praetorius mentions the following tunings for various kinds of
lute (note: 1st string only is given; string relationships
remain the same):
Small octave Lute: D or C
Small descant Lute: B
Descant Lute: A
Choir or alto Lute: G
Tenor Lute: E
Bass Lute: D
Large octave bass Lute: G
Arch Lute: same as Descant Lute, with extra bass strings tuned descending
diatonically
Theorbo: F G A B C D E F G C F A D G (or the same intervals one tone higher)
Arch Mandore: C G C G C
C F C F C
Mandora: C G C G C
C F C F C
Pandurina: G D G D
Bandora: C D G C E A
G C D G C E A
Opharion: G C F A D G
(a seventh course was added to the bass after 1600; it may also
be tuned like a Lute)
Cittern: mandolin tuning: G D A E (same as Octave Mandolin)
D G B D (open "G", same as modern Plectrum banjo)
D G C D ("G Dorian mode")
five-course: G D G B D (open "G")
G D G B D (open "G", with the 5th string as a
re-entrant, the same as a modern 5-string
banjo)
C D G B D
A D G A D
A D G B E (same as Gittern)
D G D G D
A D A D A
A E A E A
D G D A E
Lafranco (1533): A C B G D E
Adrian LeRoy (1565): A G D E
Virchi (1574): D F B G D E
Cetarone (bass cittern): Eb Bb F C G D A E B G D E
(a re-entrant tuning is also mentioned, but
no intervals are given, by Agazzari in 1607)
Guittern: A D G B E (same as modern guitar, but without the low E string)
A D G B E (re-entrant: 4th string an octave high)
4-Course Guitar: Probably similarly to the 5-Course Guitar, but without the
5th string(s) (see below)
5-Course Guitar: ca. Mid-1500's
D D G B E (4th and 5th, "D", tuned in same octave as 1st,
"E," in a re-entrant tuning)
A D G B E (5th string one octave lower than 1st thru 4th)
A D G B E (same as first five of modern guitar)
Vihuela de Mano: G C F A D G
C F Bb A D G
C F Bb A D G (note: tune to the same sound as a ukelele,
with the 4th string, the Bb, in the next octave
higher than the 5th and 3rd. This is known as
a "re-entrant" tuning and is very period.)
You may also use any standard Lute tuning.
Cytole: D G B E (re-entrant: 4th string (D) in higher octave similar to the
ukelele. I dare say you could use a tenor ukelele, or even
a tenor guitar, to stand-in for this instrument.)
Mandora: G D G D (in bass range. A mando-cello will work here quite well)
Guitarra Moresca: I suggest tuning it like a Cittern, as the descriptions of
it's sound from period Ms. would seem to indicate a "5th"
relationship tuning.
Guitarra Latina: Probably tuned like a Cittern, or like a Cytole, but if you
use a Cytole tuning, tune several tones lower.
Poliphant: Eight wire-strung courses tuned like a Lute, plus about 15 diatonic
bass strings on a harp frame, similar to the Harp-Guitar of the
early 1900's in the USA.
Stump: Seven wire-strung courses tuned in "old" Lute tuning, plus 8 open bass
strings on a harp frame.
Remember that many of these instruments are strung in pairs of
strings, with the strings of the pair tuned an octave apart. This is
usually done on the "bourdon," or bass strings, for added clarity and
volume.
On the odder relatives of the guitar, if the neck-to-bridge
distance seems a little smaller than a guitar's, measure both of them! If
this "scale" is shorter than a guitar's, it's very possible that the
instrument needs to be tuned to a higher pitch. A short-scale instrument
is meant to be tuned high, otherwise the strings will not have the correct
amount of tension to adequately stress the soundboard, and thus will
rattle, twang, and have no volume whatsoever.
To find out where to tune it, put the instrument beside a known
instrument of similar design, with both bridges in line with each other.
If the nut (the piece between the fingerboard and the peghead) on the
unknown instrument is below the nut on the known instrument, then you must
count the frets between the known's nut, on it's fingerboard, and the nut
on the other instrument. The tones played on the nearest fret of the known
to the other nut will work as a tuning guide for the other instrument.
This may sound complex, but try it....it works just fine!
This does NOT apply to Lutes, however, and be VERY careful not to
overstress the soundboard or the bridge, to avoid damage to the instrument
due to over-tensioning the strings. Go carefully, and if you are using
wire strings on any instrument, use the lightest gauge possible.
*********************************************************************
TECHNOLOGICAL AND ARTISTIC ADVANCEMENTS, AND SOME OTHER STUFF
Knives? KNIVES? It's 1183 and we're all barbarians!
We ALL carry knives!
-Elanor of Aquitane "The Lion in Winter"
Pre-Dark Ages: Development of chain-mail
Glass-blowing
Screw
Bards in Ireland
Loom
Carrier pigeons
Gears
Water-Clock
Compass (China)
Platonistic thought
400 CE: Use of the stirrup in China
Silk cultivation brought to Constantinople
The city of Ys is submerged
Kama Sutra
450 CE: Establishment of the seven "liberal arts" as a course of study
Decline of "classic" Paganisim
"DARK AGES"
500 CE: Boethius: "De Institutione Musica"
Paddle-wheel boats
Taliesin, Aneirin, Llywarch Hen
Alexander of Trales "de re medica"
Decimal notation in India
Gregorian Chant
First sighting of Loch Ness Monster
600 CE: Earliest cast iron, in China
Printing of books, in China
First Church bell, in Rome
Development of the Crwth in Wales
Caliph Uthman sets the form of al Quran (Koran)
Petroleum used in Japan
Isadore of Seville "originum sive etymologiarium libri XX"
Porcelain in China
Cotton clothing introduced in Islam
650 CE: Muslim conquest of North Africa
Sutton Hoo burial
Neumes
Glass windows in English churches
Greek Fire
700 CE: Papermaking introduced into Near East from China
Stirrup introduced into Western Europe from Asia
"Mouldboard" plow introduced into Western Europe by Slavs
"Three-field" soil rotation introduced in Western Europe
Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries on continent
First Arab coinage
Water mills
Feudalisim begins
Abu Masa Dshaffar
First printed newspaper (China)
750 CE: Muslim science enters Europe
Hops
Beds in France and Germany
Offa's Dyke
Jabir
Khazar nobility converts to Judaisim
Cynewulf
Old English
Peter's Pence first paid in England
800 CE: Earliest documented Church Organ, Aachen, Germany
Adoption of horse collar in Western Europe (from China?)
Commas, periods, colons and semi-colons appear in texts
"Anno Domine" (A.D.) dating system begins to be used
Muslim culture enters Europe
Music cultivated in the monasteries
"The Utrecht Psalter"
Bragi
Roses in Europe
The "Almagest"
850 CE: Crossbow in use
"Elder Edda"
Danelaw
Candle clocks
Famine in Western Europe
Honain ibn Iszhak
"Musica enchiriadis;" first work on polyphony
900 CE: Earliest documented use of windmills, in Near East
Earliest application of water power to industry
Table forks used in Byzantium
Vikings discover Iceland
Arabic musical instruments introduced into Europe;
development of the Lute, kettledrum and trumpet
Tropes and sequences
Rise of Castles
950 CE: London Bridge
Introduction of "Arabic" numerals to Europe
"MIDDLE AGES"
1000 CE: Avicenna (980-1037) chief medical authority
Iron produced north of the Alps
Guido of Arezzo develops "do-re-mi-fa-etc."
Mantled chimney
Gunpowder (China)
Firdausi
1050 CE: Lateen Sail first used in Italy
Soccer/Football in England
Introduction of domestic cat to Europe
"The Chanson de Roland"
Final separation of Eastern and Western Christianity
Winchester Tropes
The Bayeaux Tapestry
Apple pie in England
Domesday Boke
"Mabinogion"
Polyphony replaces Gregorian chant
Astrolabe
Wilhelm v. Hirsau
Solomon ben Yehudah ibn Gabirol
Greek medicine to Western Europe
Toledan table of positions of stars
Founding of the "Hashishin," or Ismaili Assassins
1100 CE: Earliest manufacture of paper in Europe, by Muslims in Spain
Soap
Use of the crossbow forbidden against Christians by the Church
Mined coal supplements use of charcoal as fuel
Umar Kahyyam
Oldest European paper document
Investiture of Geoffrey Plantagenet with Arms; first known use
of true Heraldry
St. Marital organum
Gondolas in Venice
Ibn Ezra
Middle English
"Roman d'Alexandre"
"Roman de Thebes"
"Roman d'Eneas"
"Roman de Troie"
Islamic science declines
Miracle plays
Playing cards (China)
First Scots coins
Maimonides
1150 CE: Earliest use of magnetic compass in Europe
"Roman de Brut"
"Roman de Rou"
Earliest documented windmill in Europe
Paper (Moorish Spain)
Chess in England
Joint Stock companies
Watermill
Treadle loom
Troubadors in Provence
Liturgical drama
Scholastics
Skittles
"Roman de Reynard"
Waldensians
Snorri Sturluson
Horse-racing in England
Glass windows in English houses
Nizami
First silver Florins minted
Tea arrives in Japan from China
"Azure, a saltire argent" adopted as Scots National flag
Aristotlean thought
1200 CE: Albertus Magnus
Trouveres in France
Minnesingers in Germany
The Alhambra
Motets
Thomas of Celano "Dies Irae"
Engagement rings come into fashion
Indigo imported into England
Cymbals
"faux bourdon"
Court jesters
Sinbad the Sailor
Arabic (Indian) numerals introduced in Europe
Wire strings for musical instruments
Maimonides
"Parzival"
Sonnet develops in Italy
Roger Bacon
Tiled roofs in London
First giraffes shown in Europe
"Roman de la Rose"
"De sphaero" John of Hollywood (Sacrobosco)
The Mongols
Cotton manufactured in Moorish Spain
Leprosy enters Europe
"Summer Is Icumen In"
1250 CE: Double-entry book-keeping
Marco Polo travels to China and India
Spectacles invented
Mechanical clock
First documented use of spinning wheel in Europe
First appearance of Kings-of-Arms
Sa'adi
ars antiqua
English musicians in Paris
St Thomas Aquinas "Summa Theologica"
Roger Bacon "Opus Maius"
Adam de la Hale "Robin et Marion"
Longbow introduced to English armies
Jalal ad-Din Rumi
Portative organs
Goose quill used for writing
Gold Florins minted
Linen manufactured in England
"Frauendienst"
"The Harrowing of Hell"
Block printing of books in Ravenna, Netherlands, and Germany
"RENAISSANCE"
1300 CE: First large scale production of paper in Europe, in Italy and Germany
First large scale production of gunpowder in Europe
First use of the word "Peer" in England
Mass of Tournai
First use of cannon
Earliest cast-iron in Europe
Table forks in use in Europe
Title of "Duke" introduced in England
"Ars Nova"
Decline of true feudalisim
Avignon Exile of the Papacy
"Aucassin et Nicolette"
Giotto
Dante "The Divine Comedy"
"Roman de Fauvel"
First French "Operette"
Motets
The Zohar
First toll roads in England
Glass mirrors
First Sequins coined
"Lohengrin"
Lyons silk industry developed
Hafiz
Noh drama in Japan develops
Pedal organ
Sawmills
Sternpost rudders on ships
Tyl Eulenspiegel
Billiards
1350 CE: Black Death in Europe
Rise of mercenaries
Guillaume de Machaut "Mass of Notre Dame"
Economic and agricultural depression in Europe
Bocaccio "The Decameron"
William Langland "The Vision of Piers Plowman"
Wycliffe translates the Bible into English
Wycliffe "de civili dominio"
Chaucer "The Canterbury Tales"
The Pope gives the Church jurisdiction over accusations of sorcery
Danse Macabre
Ankor Wat (Kampuchea) deserted
High point of manuscript illumination
Open-air tennis popular in England
Clavichord and Cembalo
Riding sidesaddle for women enters England
First Francs coined
Steel-prodded crossbows
Playing cards in Germany
1400 CE: Gutenberg invents use of movable type for printing
Sewing machines (?)
Earliest account of the sea-quadrant
Hand-held guns become a factor in warfare
Rise of the Duchy of Burgundy
Social dance of mixed pairs
"Tres Riches Heures" of the Duc de Berry
Thomas a Kempis "The Imitation of Christ"
"White notation" introduced in England
Beginnings of chemical technology
Alchemy becomes a swindler's paradise
Giovanni da Prato "Paradiso degli Alberti"
Ghiberti "Gates of Paradise"
Jan and Hubert Van Eyck "The Ghent Altarpiece"
Donatello "David"
Meistersingers in Germany
Vatican Library
Humanisim
Publication of the "Reformation of Kaiser Sigsimund"
Drift nets in use in Holland
The Double-Eagle becomes the emblem of the Holy Roman Empire
Slave trade from Africa
Coffee exported from Mocha, Arabia
1450 CE: Development of serpentine-lock for firearms
Intaglio
"Donation of Constantine" proved a forgery
The "capitiulum," or paragraph mark, appears in texts
Fouquet "Book of Hours of Etienne Chevalier"
Bamburgh Castle: first English fortress taken by cannon
Lochamer "Liederbuch"
William Caxton sets up print shop in England
Cornazzano "Libro dell'arte del danzare"
Mazarin Bible printed by Gutenberg
First Doctor of Music degree awarded at Oxford
Botticelli "La Primavera"
James Obrecht
Regiomontanus "De triangulis"
Jami
Sir Thomas Mallory "Morte d'Arthur"
Unification of Spain (1492)
Hieronymus Bosch "Temptation of St. Anthony"
Leonardo da Vinci "Last Supper"
Franchino Gafori "Practica Musicae"
Ottaviano dei Petrucci prints first complete song collections
from movable type
French Royal mail service
Origin of the handgun
Football, golf and bowling in England and Scotland
Beginning of Ballet
The expressions "million," "billion," and "zero" come into use
The symbols "plus" (+) and "minus" (-) come into use
First pawnshops
Secular censorship of books
First manual of navigation
Quadrant
Savonarola's followers destroy most Greek & Roman painting
Five-course "guitar"
1500 CE: Development of wheelock firearms
Handguns become practical
Persia (Iran) becomes Shi'ite
Galliard
La Volta
Courante
Allemande
Acid-etch printing
Table forks used in Venice
Syphylis epidemic in Europe
Development of the Scots Claymore
Columbus introduces the hammock to Europe
Development of the Rapier
First book of Frottole
Montalvo "Las Sergas de Esplandian"
Modern English develops from Middle English
Leonardo da Vinci "Mona Lisa"
Michaelangelo "David"
Albrecht Durer "Adam and Eve"
Petrucci issues first printed lute tablature
First manual of Lute-playing
Michaelangelo begins "Sistine Chapel"
Erasmus "In Praise of Folly"
Grunewald "Isenheim Altarpiece"
Machiavelli "The Prince"
Raphael "Sistine Madonna"
Thomas More "Utopia"
Ariosto "Orlando Furioso"
First black-lead pencils
Faience
Silver Guilders minted
Pocket handkerchiefs
Titan "Deposition"
Castiglione "The Courtier"
Copernicus "De Revolitionibus Orbium Coelesticum"
Rabelais "Gargantua"
First Italian Madrigals
Hans Holbein the Younger "The Ambassadors"
Titian "Venus of Urbino"
Jacob Arcadelt first book of five-part madrigals
Jesuits
Michaelangelo "Last Judgement"
First church in the New World
Cellini "Perseus"
Edward VI's "Book of Common Prayer"
Pineapple in Europe
Coffee in Europe
East Asian porcelain in Europe
General use of Spinning-wheel
Halley's Comet (1531)
Silk-manufacture introduced in France
Silk stockings
Turkey eaten in England
First manual of surgery
First diving-bells
India-rubber
Firearms brought to Japan
Cardano "Ars magnae"
Decimal fractions
Algebraic letter-symbols
First Christmas tree, at Strasbourg
First European botanical garden
First pocket watches
1550 CE: Development of the miquelet-lock for firearms
"Ralph Roister-Doister"
Game of Curling, in Scotland
Beginnings of the use of the "belted plaid" in Scotland
Aldus Manutius, Venetian publisher, codifies puctuation marks
The compound microscope
Chittarra Battente
Peter Breughel the Elder "The Wedding Dance"
Palestrina
William Byrd
Thomas Tallis
Tintoretto "Ascension of Christ"
Montaigne "Essays"
Marlowe "Doctor Faustus"
Byrd "Songs of Sundrie Natures"
Edmund Spencer "The Faerie Queen"
Tintoretto "The Last Supper"
Wm. Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet"
John Dowland "First Book of Songs or Ayres"
Development of the present day violin
Billiards
Cricket
Tobacco in Europe
Snuff-taking spreads
Modern chess
Tulips in Europe
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
Milled coins in England
Sweet potatoes and tobacco in England
Newspapers
Cane-sugar
Sedan-chairs in general use in England
Italian cooking predominates in Europe
Shorthand
Giovanni Gabrieli "Sacrae Symphonie"
"Sonata Pian'e Forte"
First knitting machine
Pompeii discovered
Potatoes grown in Spain and Italy
Tomatoes in England
First "W.C.'s" in England
Approximate end of Feudalisim, rise of sovereign states
Siege of Sancerre (last military use of sling)
"Divine Right" of Kings
First field hospitals
Chocolate popular in Spain
Potatoes reach England
Arbeau "Orchesographie"
Persecution of Japanese Christians
1600 CE: Sir Walter Raleigh plants potatoes on his estates in Ireland
Development of the true flint-lock in firearms
"Baroque" guitar
Fruits preserved in cane sugar
Logarithms
Decimal point
Gavotte
Development of the Scots basket-hilted broadsword ("Claybeg")
Table forks fashionable in England
First Dictionary of English
Pascal develops the mechanical computer
Acting legitimized as a respectable profession in France
Use of the Stage-coach
"Before Christ" (B.C.) dating system begins to be used
William Tell appears in folk ballads
Wm. Shakespeare "Hamlet" (1601)
Gallileo discovers law of falling bodies ((1602)
Dutch East India Company (1602)
Wm. Shakespeare "Othello" (1604)
Monteverdi "Fifth Book of Madrigals" (1605)
Cervantes "Don Quixote (Part 1)"
Francis Bacon "On the Advancement of Learning"
Ben Jonson "Volpone"
Wm. Shakespeare "MacBeth" (1606)
Monteverdi "Orfeo" (1607)
Jamestown Colony
Glass bottles exported from Jamestown (1608)
Development of the Telescope (1608)
First checks (1608)
Johannes Kepler "Astronomia Nova" (1609)
Tea from China (1609)
"Parthenia" (1611)
King James Bible (1611)
Baronets (1611)
Bacon "Novum Organum" (1612)
Copper coins (1613)
Rosicrucians (ca. 1614)
English glass industry (1614)
Peter Paul Rubens "Descent from the Cross" (1614)
Trigonometrical triangulation in cartography (1617)
Potoatoes banned in Burgundy as a cause of leprosy (1619)
Pilgrims land at Plymouth (1620)
First submarine (1620)
Deaf-and-Dumb sign language (1620)
Potatoes planted in Germany (1621)
Shakespeare "First Folio" (1623)
Patent law in England (1623)
Name "gas" used (1624)
Franz Hals "The Laughing Cavalier" (1624)
First fire engines in England (1625)
The Siege of La Rochelle ends (1626)
William Harvey "Essay on the Motion of the Heart and the Blood"
(1628)
Founding of the city of Boston, Mass. by the Puritans (1630)
Pirates in Tortuga (1630)
Public advertising (1630)
Rembrandt van Rijn "The Anatomy Lesson" (1631)
Taj Mahal begun (1634)
Pierre Cournelle "Le Cid" (1636)
Tea appears in Paris (1636)
Descartes "Discourse on Method" (1637)
Anthony van Dyke "The Children of Charles I" (1637)
First public opera theater, in Venice
Torture abolished in England (1639)
First comic operas (1639)
"The Bay Psalm Book" (1640)
First American whiskey made (1640)
Hope Diamond purchased by Tavernier (1640)
Rembrandt "The Night Watch" (1642)
Income and property tax introduced in England (1642)
Lope de Vega (1647)
End of Thirty Years War (1648)
Descartes "Musicae Compendium" (1650)
Beginning of extermination of N. American Indian (1650)
"Long lunge" and "parry-riposte" in fencing (no date, but after
1601)
****************************************************************************
MEDIEVAL LEGAL TERMS AND CONCEPTS
"First, we kill all the lawyers..."
-Wm. Shakespeare
The following is a list of generalized definitions of some medieval
legal terms. Note that not all are exact legal definitions, but rather have
been somewhat simplified and paraphrased.
For the most part, they relate to England and France. Where they have
another origin, it is so marked.
ALLODIUM: L.; land held from no LORD; free ownership. See FEODUM SOLIS.
APANAGE: O. Fr.; French usage of giving lands to non-Heirs Royal of the Crown
of France. These lands could not be sold, mortgaged, or used
as a dowry, and passed back to the King in the extinction
of the line.
ASSIZES: O. Fr.; the LAWS imposed by the King with the consent of His NOBLES;
the codification of LAWS, or a type of LAW court that ruled
on customary LAW.
AUXILIUM: L., the military service owed by a VASSAL to his LORD.
Five types were recognized:
1) the defense of the LORD's castle
2) the ransom of the LORD, if he was taken captive
3) the costs of the knighthood of his eldest son
4) the costs of the marriage of his eldest daughter
5) participation with the LORD in a Crusade
BENEFICE: Land given by the LORD to a vassal, for the vassal's use. It remains
the property of the LORD, and is not inheritable, in the old sense
of the word's use. This changed after 875 CE, when BENEFICES became
inheritable, "real" property of the vassal.
BOROUGH: a "free" city. (Burg, Burgus, Burh, Bourg)
BREHON LAW: the COMMON LAW of Ireland and Scotland.
BURGHER: a citizen of a BOROUGH, usually owning a house within the city
limits, and prosperous enough to hire others to work for them.
CAIN: (Scotland) a tax paid to maintain the LORD.
CHARTER OF FRANCHISE: A document freeing a SERF; a document freeing a town.
CHARTER OF LIBERTIES: the formal statement by the Crown of the privleges of
the NOBILITY.
CITY: a town wherein a Bishop has his formal "seat."
COMITATUS: L,; an armed group of men attached to a leader.
COMMONER: a non-noble.
COMMON LAW: traditional LAW of an area or region.
COMMUNIO JURATA: L.; a community of people who have pledged their FEALTY to
themselves and their community. The Dark Horde tends to
fall under this classification.
COMMUNITAS REGNI: L.; the community of the Realm; the general representation
of the nation in Parliament, CURIA Regis, etc.
COMPURGATION: a person of good birth and reputation could bring two witnesses
of good standing, to swear he was telling the truth. Should the
accuser bring co-accusers, the defendant had to bring an equal
number of compurgators.
CONSILIUM: L.; to advise the LORD at his Court. The decisions made were
binding on the VASSALS.
CONSUETUDINES: L; customary taxes.
CONVETH: (Scotland) providing food, shelter &c to the LORD and his following.
COURT OF THE KING'S BENCH: an appellate court, headed by the King or His
personal representative.
CURIA: L.; "Court" in the sense of an assembly of advisors to make LAW and
render decisions to a feudal superior; the Royal Court
CURIA Regis: the advisors of the King
(also called "Plenary CURIA," "High CURIA," or
"Haute CURIA."
CURIA Princeps: the advisors of a Prince
CURIA Baronis: the advisors of a Baron
CUSTOMS: Taxes paid by merchants and peasants for the use of roads, bridges,
or the gates of BOROUGHS; the COMMON LAW.
DESAVEAU: The custom that a peasant could "disavow" his Lord and take service
with another, under some circumstances.
DROIT DU SIEGNEUR: See JUS PRIMAE NOCTIS
ECHEVINAGE: O. Fr.; a tax in France to maintain the offices of local officers.
ESTATES: the social classes, derived from the early medieval concept of:
1) Clergy
2) NOBILITY
3) Peasants (in actuality BURGHERS, as the peasants were
more passive participants.)
EXPEDITIO: Med. L; A military campaign, a duty owed by a VASSAL to his LORD,
limited to 40 days at the VASSAL's expense, after which the LORD
had to pay expenses.
FEACHT: (Scotland) Military service on behalf of the LORD.
FEALTY (TYPES OF): see HOMAGE
Liege FEALTY: the FEALTY sworn by a Knight; the VASSAL swears
absolute obedience to the LORD. See FIEF MILITUM.
Simple FEALTY: a pledge of loyalty to the LORD.
Service FEALTY: a pledge of service to the LORD.
All of the above fall under HOMAGE, being two-way contracts, but
"Simple" FEALTY and "Service" FEALTY do not require absolute
obedience, but place limits on the obligations required of the
VASSAL.
FELONY: A breach of HOMAGE, a violation of the contract between LORD and
VASSAL, a violation of feudal CUSTOMS.
The legitimate breaches of the contract included:
1) failure to protect the VASSAL,
2) refusal of justice by denial of access to the LORD's court, or
3) dishonourable conduct towards the vassal
FEUDALISIM: The relations and interdependence between LORD and VASSAL, based
on the FIEF, or ownership of land.
FIDELITAS: L; faithfulness to Christianity; a VASSAL's loyalty to his LORD.
FIEF (TYPES OF):
Blenche-firme: land held for a token payment.
Feh or Feo: O. Ger., "cattle." (root word)
Feodum: Med.L., fief; Med. Latin variants were "feo, feos, fedum,
feum, feus, feuz, fevum, feudum"
Feodum solis: absolute ownership of land not under a feudal LORD.
Feodum vavassoris: implys "vested in the land, but does not control it"
Feu firma: a perpetual, heritable holding.
Fief de bursa: a fee paid by Kings for military service to their
vassals.
Fief de camera: the revenues of the Royal chamber.
Fief de dignite: a BENEFICE given to public officials
Fief francum: a free fief; exempted from some or all service to the
King.
Fief ligium: land held from the "primary LORD," from the LORD who came
first in any obligations; land held of the King.
Fief militum: land held by a knight.
Fief loricae: see FIEF MILITUM.
Fio: (It.) payment for honourable service; a "fee."
Frankalmoign: land held for no secular service at all.
Vassi casati: L., Carolingian "vassal with a fief"
FIRMA BURGI: L.; the right to collect taxes within a city by it's municipal
government.
FISCUS: L; the King's personal land and properties.
FORFEITURE: A VASSAL surrendering his land, or other property, to his LORD,
after conviction in the LORD's court.
FUERO: Sp.; charters of liberties and PRIVLEGES.
FYRD: Ang. Sax.; the military service of free-men, the popular militia.
GABELLE: O. Fr.; any form of indirect tax; the tax on salt, in France,
from which the NOBILITY, the clergy, and other PRIVLEGED
persons were exempted.
GOMBETTE: Fr.; Customary LAW of Burgundy.
HOMAGE: (L. "Hominum") The oath taken by a VASSAL to signify his
relationship with the LORD. It is a "contract,"
and binds both parties to certain acts. If a LORD
violates the contract, the VASSAL can defy ( de-FIEF )
the LORD with no FELONY.
HUNDRED: Eng.; a sub-division of a Shire, in England.
HYDE: Ang. Sax.; a unit of land corresponding to a peasant's family estate.
IMMUNITY: an area or group of men exempted from a feudal obligation, or tax.
INQUEST: an investigation by Royal officials, usually into tax matters.
IQTA'A: Ar.; Islamic form of Feudalisim, based on landed income to military
commanders in return for military service.
ITINERANT JUSTICES: Royal officials sent around to the Shires to administer
justice, check up on affairs, etc.
JURY TRIAL: free-men met in a body, in England, to decide guilt or innocence.
Their decisions made up the COMMON LAW.
JUS PRIMAE NOCTIS: The right of the Lord to spend the first night of a
peasant's marriage with the bride. This was usually
commuted to a money fine.
JUNKER: Ger.; see KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE.
KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE: a separate class of knights which was employed in the
administration of countys and shires, in England.
The German equivalent was known as "JUNKER."
LAW: In the Middle Ages, LAW was considered to have been dictated by Divine
Will, and revealed to wise men. The most ancient legal precedents and
CUSTOMS were considered to be the best LAW, and much of Continental
Europe wound up modeling secular LAW after the old Roman LAW.
In Byzantium, secular and sacred LAW were somewhat intermingled, with
secular LAW taking precedence.
In Western Europe, however, religious and secular LAW were separate
bodies. Church LAW was known as Canon Law, and applied to the clergy,
and to the secular world in matters of the administration of the
Sacraments, such as marriage, and to the immunity of the clergy from
secular LAW. This is the root of the conflict between Church and State.
St. Augustine arranged LAW thru three levels:
1) Divine LAW, a perfect system comprehended thru faith and
reason,
2) Natural LAW, which could be understood by all creatures,
lacked the perfection of faith, and could be improved by
philosophy,
3) Temporal (secular) LAW, obedience to which was enjoined
on all Christians, save where it conflicted with Divine
or Canon LAW.
LEYRWITE: a fine paid by servile persons, usually female, for unlawful
sexual intercourse.
LIEGE: O. Fr.; the LORD to whom a VASSAL swears "Liege" FEALTY, usually the
King.
LIBERTAS: L.; used in two senses:
1) The freedom of the Church from secular interference,
"Libertas ecclesiae."
2) "freedom under Divine LAW," only found within the
Church and according to its' precepts.
LORD: (L,: "Dominus" or "Senior," Ang. Sax.: "Hlaord," Sp.: "Senor,"
O. Fr.: "Siegneur," etc.)
A LORD was anyone who held VASSALS, and land cultivated by dependent
peasants.
MAINMORTE: O. Fr.; land, or other property, that passed to the LORD on the
death of the VASSAL or SERF holding it.
MANSUS: L.; see HYDE. The inhabitants of MANSII were divided generally
into three categories:
1) Mansus servilus: SERFs
2) Mansus liberis: free-men
3) Mansus lidilus: freed SERFs
MERCHET: a fine paid by bondsmen when they were married. This was one of
the marks of servility.
MORTEMAIN: see MAINMORTE.
NOBILITY: the upper social class in feudal Europe. They were characterized
by the following:
1) Ownership of land, as a VASSAL to another LORD.
2) A military obligation to the King
3) An administrative obligation to the King
4) Possession of heraldry
The NOBILITY was divided, roughly, into two classes:
1) Noblesse de epee: "of the Sword," Knights
2) Noblesse de robe: " of the Robe," administrators
NOBLE: see NOBILITY.
NOTARY: A legal officer whose duty was to write, witness, care for,
and otherwise take care of documents. He was a legal officer,
and thus, everything he wrote/witnessed was considered legal
evidence. They were certified by the King or the Pope.
ORDEAL: a COMMON LAW practice, discouraged by the Church, which submitted
the accused, or the accuser, or both, to the Judgement of God,
usually with fire or water. Whoever died, or whose wounds festered,
was considered guilty.
PRIVLEGIUM FORI: L.; the exemption of clergy from secular LAW; "clerical
immunity."
PROVISIONS OF OXFORD: a confirmation of Magna Carta by Henry III of England,
which formed the basis of Parliament.
PANDECTS: manuals containing interpetations of Roman LAW.
PEERS: the VASSALS of a LORD who are equal among themselves.
PRIMUS INTER PARES: L.; "first among equals," the ideal condition of a LORD
to his VASSALS.
PRIVLEGE: a private LAW applicable to one person, or a group of persons,
or a social body.
PURVEYANCE: the feudal right of the LORD to stay at a VASSAL's home for a
stipulated amount of time. This was generally commuted to a
regular monetary payment by the VASSAL to the LORD.
REGALIA: L.; the Crown, Sceptre, Robe &c worn by the King as a mark of his
Kingship; it also means the enfeoffment of Royal Authority to
a VASSAL, usually the rights to make LAW, to tax, to raise
armies, and to render justice.
SACHENSPIEGEL: Ger.; the COMMON LAW of Saxony.
SALIC LAW: the COMMON LAW of France.
SCHWABENSPIEGEL: Ger.; the COMMON LAW of Bavaria. It also included Imperial
Law.
SCUTAGE: (Lat.: "scutum," O. Fr. "ecuage") a tax imposed on Knights in lieu
of military service. Used by the King of England in the late Middle
Ages as a form of revenue to hire mercenaries.
SERF: A SERF was defined by three things:
1) he/she was bound to the land; they could not travel
freely.
2) they had no legal rights in the courts, and
3) they could not testify in courts of LAW.
SEGEANTS: the upper strata of the peasantry. Some received lands, and were
VASSALS of NOBILITY. They were the "supervisory" class of peasant.
SIETE PARTIDAS: Sp.; the constitutional code of Castile.
SLUAGED: (Scotland) Military service on behalf of the LORD.
SOKE: Ang. Sax.; the free tenure of land by a peasant
STATUTE OF YORK: made a distinction between the King, who was limited in his
powers by his coronation Oath, and Kingship, which abstract
idea was considered to have unconstrained powers. This, and
Magna Carta, were the roots of the concept of the
"Constitutional Monarchy."
SUCEPTUS: L.; a VASSAL.
TAILLE: tax imposed on the revenues of non-NOBILITY.
TELONIUM: L; an excise tax paid by merchants.
TENANTS-IN-CHIEF: NOBILITY that held land directly of the King.
TENURE: possession of land in FIEF from another LORD, who held of another,
and so on directly to the King. Simple ownership of land merely made
one free, but not always NOBLE.
THING: the assembly of free-men and/or barons of Sweden.
TRIAL: usually done in one of three ways:
1) COMPURGATION
2) Trial-by-Combat
3) ORDEAL
JURY TRIAL developed in England as a fourth alternative.
VASSAL: Someone who, by a series of formal acts, usually HOMAGE, commits
themselves to serve another, usually receiving a FIEF in return.
The obligations of a VASSAL were AUXILIUM and CONSILIUM, which see.
VASSATICUM; L; 1) VASSALAGE
2) the services of the VASSAL
3) the VASSALS of a LORD as a body
VICAR: L; one who acts as a proxy in an official capacity. In the SCA, their
powers tend to be severely limited.
VILLE FRANCHE: ( L.: "Villa franca") a town chartered by the King, and given
certain privleges, but not self-governing.
VILLEIN: Fr.; in France: 1) a rural or urban non-noble
2) a rural free-man
in England: a peasant with enough land to support his family.
VISITATION: a formal visit by one in authority for enforcement of LAW.
WARRANTIA: L.; the obligation to produce warrantors and/or COMPURGATORS.
Failure or inability to do so could result in outlawry.
WERGILD: Ger; monetary compensation paid by a murderer to the relatives of the
victim.
YEOMAN: in England, a free-man, who owned his land.
*******************************************************************************
* GEOGRAPHY *
BIGHT: a bend, or indentation in the shoreline; a bend in a river.
BOWER: a shaded, leafy arbor.
CAIRN: a pile of rocks (man-made), usually fairly small.
CROFT: a small, enclosed field or pasture; the small farm itself.
CHASE: a private, unenclosed game preserve.
COPSE: a small thicket of trees and/or shrubs.
COPPICE: a fenced-in group of trees.
DALE: see VALE, not quite so large.
DELL: a wooded DALE.
DOWNS: hilly, grassy uplands.
FEN: flat swampy land, boggy, usually forming peat.
GLADE: a clearing in a forest.
GLEN: a mountain valley.
GROVE: a group of trees, free of undergrowth.
HAM: a small village.
HEATH: heather-covered MOOR, not so soggy.
HEDGEROW: a hedge used as a boundary-marker.
LEA: see SWARD.
LOCH: a Scottish TARN.
MERE: a lake, pond, or sometimes marsh.
MEDE: a cultivated field, or pasture, larger than a CROFT.
MOOR: a high, broad tract of open land, poorly drained, with patches of
HEATH and sometimes FENS.
RILL: a small brook or stream.
STRAND: land bordering a river, sea, or lake; a beach.
STILE: a stairway over a fence.
SHINGLE: a pebble-covered beach; the pebbles on the beach.
SPINNEY: a COPSE on the edge of a valley or cliff.
SWARD: a lawn, meadow, or wide expanse of grass.
SWALE: a shady, cool, and sometimes moist SWARD.
TOR: a pile of rocks on top of a hill.
TARN: a mountain lake without tributaries.
THORP: a small village.
VALE: a broad, low-sided valley, with a stream running thru it.
WEIR: a fence to trap fish.
WELD: a patchily wooded DOWN.
WICK: a small village.
*****************************************************************************
