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The Pope is believed by Catholics to be the successor of Christ and referred to as the Vicar of Christ.
The term Vicar of Christ was first used by the Roman Synod of 495. In a letter
to the Corinthians, written c. 96 AD, by Clement of Rome, a pastoral tone was adopted.
Some historians believe that the papal primacy can be observed in a letter written
to the Romans (written c. 105) in which the work “preside” and “Romans”
are used in the same sentence. In a letter written by Ireneaus of Lyons, Against Heresies, a hint to the primacy of the Church of Rome is believed to be indicated by some historians as
the first claim to Rome’s Papal primacy, “With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior orgin, all the churches
must agree… and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." The term “Pope” was first used by Marcellinus (d. 304). The term “Pope” was declared
to be used exclusively in reference to the Bishop of Rome by Gregory VII (Pope from April 22, 1073-1085).
In 195 Pope Victor I excommunicated the Quartodecimans
for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, a tradition handed down by St. John the Evangelist himself based
on the Jewish Passover.
The First Council
of Constantinople (AD 381) suggested strongly that Roman primacy was already asserted; however, it should be noted that, because
of the controversy over this claim, the pope did not personally attend this ecumenical council, which was held in the eastern
capital of the Roman empire, rather than at Rome. It was not until 440 that Leo the Great more clearly articulated the extension
of papal authority as doctrine, promulgating in edicts and in councils his right to exercise “the full range of apostolic
powers that Jesus had first bestowed on the apostle Peter”. It was at the ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451 that
Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was “speaking with the voice of Peter”. At this same council, an
attempt at compromise was made when the Bishop of Constantinople was given a primacy of honour second only to that of the
Bishop of Rome, because “Constantinople is the New Rome.” Ironically, Roman papal authorities rejected this language since
it did not clearly recognize Rome’s claim to juridical
authority over the other churches.
Only senior clergymen resident in and near Rome were allowed a voice in the election of the Pope until 1059 when the electorate was
restricted to the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church.
The Second Council of Lyons was convened on May 7, 1274,
to regulate the election of the Pope. This council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope’s
death, and that they must remain in seclusion (Conclave) until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year Sede Vacante following the death of Pope Clement
IV in 1268. By the mid-sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evoved into its present form, allowing for
alteration in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of cardinal electors.
The title “Vicar of Christ” refers to the Pope’s
claims of divine commission. This title came into use in the fifth and sixth centuries. The Second Vatacan Council confirmed
the titles “Vicar of Christ” and “Successor of Peter”.
The use of the term “Supreme Pontiff” (Pontifex Maximus) by the pope can be traced back to the end of the fourth century. This ancient title of the Roman
High-Priest, whose orgins date from the foundation of Rome,
was assumed by the Bishops of Rome after being relinquished by the Emperor Gratian.
The pope’s official seat or cathedral is the Basilica
of St. John Lateran, and his official residence is the Place of the Vatican.
He also possesses a summer place at Castel Gandolfo (situated on the site of the ancient city-state Alba Longa). Historically, the official residence of the Pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor
Constantine the Great.
The Popes ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) is
distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It
is the Holy See which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the papal court (the Roman Curia) has functioned
as the government of the Catholic Church
The name “Holy See” (also “Apostolic See”)
is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope’s
various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate
of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle St. Peter. Consequently, Rome
has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives
his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope
is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in Avignon,
a period often called the Babylonian Captivity in allusion to the Biblical exile of Isreal.
According to James-Charles Noonan and Bruno Heim the lowest of the three crown appear at the
base of the traditional white papal headgear in the ninth century. When the popes assumed temporal power in the Papal States, the base crown became decorated with jewels to resemble the crowns of princes. He suggested
that a second crown was added by Pope Boniface VII in 1298 to symbolize spiritual dominion. Very soon after, in or around
1314, a third crown and lappet (cloth strips) were added; Pope Clement V was the first to wear the triple tiara.
An alternative chronology suggests that the tiara began
as a sort of closed “tocque”. In 1130 a crown was added, symbol of sovereignty over the Papal
States. Boniface VIII, in 1301, added a second crown, at the time of the confrontation with Philip the Fai, King
of France, to show that his spiritual authority was superior to any civil authority. Benedict XII in 1342 who added a third
crown to symbolize the Pope’s moral authority over all secular monarchs, and reaffirmed the possession of Avignon.
At the end of the Second Vatican Copuncil, Pope Paul VI
descended the steps of the papal throne in St. Peter’s Basilica and laid the tiara on the altar in a dramatic gesture
of humility and as a sign of the renunciation of human glory and power in keeping with the renewed spirit of the Council.
Since then, none of his successors has worn a tiara.
Pope Paul’s
tiara was presented to the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate
Conception in Washington, D.C. by the Apostolic Delegate
to the United States on February 6, 1968 as a gesture of Pope Paul VI’s
affection for lthe Catholic Church in the United States. It is on permanent display in Memorial Hall along with the stole theat Pope John XXIII
wore at the opening of the Second Vatican Council.
Pope John XXIII (1958-1963) wore a tiara bearing the inscription Vicarius Filii Dei (Vicar of the Son of God). When numerised (i.e., when those letters
in the alleged title that have Roman numerals value are added together), the words produce the number 666, described in the
Book of Revelation as the Number of the Beast, who, some have claimed, would “wear” a crown similar to a triple
tiara.
Many bazaar things took place among the popes and many autrocities are recorded in the annuls
of the vatican history. For instance conscider the Cadaver Synod:
The Cadaver Synod is the name commonly given to the posthumous ecclesiastical trial of Pope Formosus, held
in the Basilica of St. John Lateran I Rome during January of 897. Formosus
(pope from 891 to 896) was put on trial in an outrageous synod known as the Cadaver Synod. He had been a candidate for the
papacy in 872, but political complications caused him to leave the court of Pope John VIII and Rome in that year.
The
period of time surrounding the Cadaver Synod, from approximately 872-965, was a time of political instability in
Italy; during this time there were 24 popes. Few sources survive relating these events, however, it is known that the
brief reigns of these popes were often a result of political machinations of the local Roman factions.
Formosus had become Cardinal Bishop of Portus in 864 during the pontificate of Pope Nicholas I. He was so successful
in his missionary activity among the Bulgarians that they requested him as their bishop. He was refused this appointment in
Bulgaria by Pope Nicholus because this would have required Formosus to leave his see in Porto and the fifteenth canon
of the Council of Nicaea forbids the transmigration of sees.
Formosus had become a candidate for the papacy as early as 872, but he left Rome in 875, shorty after Charles
the Bald's imperial coronation, and the court of Pope John VIII due to political complications. At the synod in Santa Maria
Rotunda in 876 John VIII issued a series of accusations against Formosus and some of his associates. He claimed: (1) that
Formosus had corrupted the minds of the Bulgarians "so that, so long as [Foromosus] was alive, [they] would not accept
any other bishop from the apostolic see", (2) that he and his companions had attempted to usurp the papacy from John, and
(3)that he had deserted his see in Porto and was conspiring "against the salvation of the republic and of our beloved Charles
[the Bald].
Formosus was required to return after John convened a synod; failure for him to comply would have resulted
in Formosus being excommunicated on charges of: (1) he had aspired to the Bulgarian Archbishopric and the Holy See, (2) he
had opposed the emperor without papal permission, (3) he had despoiled the cloisters in Rome, (4) he had performed the divine
service in spite of the interdict, and (5) he had "conspired with certain iniquitous men and women for the destruction of
the papal see".
It was announced in July 872 that Formosus and others were condemned; this act of excommunication
was withdrawn, however, in 878 when Formosus promised never to return to Rome or practice his priestly function. John
may have confirmed these excommunitions at a council held at Troyes held in 878. According to the tenth century author
Auxilius,Formosus was present at this council. Auxilius says that he begged the bishops for their forgiveness, and, in return
for lifting the excommunication, swore an oath to remain a layman for the rest of his life, to never again enter Rome, and
to make no attempts to reassume his former see at Porto. This story is doubtful; another description of the synod does not
mention formosus' presence and says instead that John confirmed his excommunication.
Formosus'
troubles seemed to have ended with the death of John VIII. Pope
Marinus I, who succeded John, restored Formosus to his diocese of Porto in 883 where he was to remain until his election
to pope.
Formosus was eventually elected pope on October 6, 891 following the reigns of Pope Hadrian III (884-885) and Pope
Stephen V (885-891).
Formosus was forced to crown Guy II of Spoleto as a Roman Emperor in April 892 by Guy II's supporters. In Constantinople
there were other matters at hand: (1) Stephen, the son of Emperor Basil I had taken the office of the ousted Patriach Photius,
(2) a quarrel arose between the Archbishops of Cologne and Hamburg in regard to the Bishopric of Bremen and, (3) the pope
sided with Charles the simple in the rivalry between Charles the Simple and Odo, Count of Paris for the French crown.
Arnulf of Carinthia was encouraged by Formosus to march on Rome, conquer the Italian peninsula and take control of
Italy. Arnulf's army took control of all the contry north of the Po River in 894. After Guido died in December, his mother,
Agiltrude, was left to care for him; she was against the causes of the Carolingians. Arnulf was crowned emperor by the pope
in 896 after his second campaign of Italy which he undertook in 895. On his way to move against Spoleto, however, the new
emperor was struck with paralysis and was not able to complete his mission.
Pope Boniface VI succeeded Formosus after his death on April 4, 896.
After the death of Pope Formosus riots broke out which resulted in the election of Boniface on April of 896. His pontificate
only lasted fifteen days; it has been rumored that he died of gout but others believe that he was forced out of the papacy
in order that Stephen VI could be elected; Stephen had been the candidate of the Spoletan party. Stephen's election was
pronounced null and void at the Council of Rome which was held by John IX in 898.
Pope Formosus
had made Stephen VI, who served as pope from May 22, 896 to August 897, bishop of Angri. Stephen was sponsored by the
house of Spoleto which contested the papacy at the time. The circumstances of Stephen's election remain a mystery.
Stephen (pope
from May 22, 896 to August 897) is remembered primarily for his notorious Cadaver Synod. Pressured by the Spoleto contingent,
the body of Pope Formosus had been exhumed and put on trial. In January 897 the rotting corpse was exhumed and placed on the
papal throne and a deacon was appointed to reply for the deceased pontiff. The corpse was condemned for performing the
functions of a bishop when he had been deposed, for receiving the pontificate while was the bishop of Porto, and other
charges that had been leveled against Formosus in the rivalry during the pontificate of John VIII.
The quarrel Formosus
had with John VIII formed the basis for the accusations made aganst him at the Cadaver Synod. According to the tenth
century historian Liutprand of Cremona, Stephen VI asked Formosus' corpse why he "usurped the universal Roman see in such
a spirit of ambition" after the death of John VIII, echoing John VIII's own assertion that Formosus had tried to seize the
papal throne while he was still alive. Two further accusations were also made against Formosus at the Cadaver Synod:
that he had committed perjury, and that he had attempted to exercise the office of bishop as a layman. These are related
to the oath Formosus is said to have sworn before the council at Troyes in 878.
The
dead pope was found guilty, stripped of his sacred vestments, three of his fingers of his right hand (used in pronouncing
blessings) were amputated, he was dressed in the gown of a layman, and promptly reburied. Shortly later his body was dug up
a second time and tossed into the Tiber River. All of Formosus' ordinations were annulled. This mock trial wrought havoc ending
with the imprisonment of Stephen ande his death later that summer.
It is generally
considered that poitics was the motivating force that brought on the Cadaver Synod. Lambert of Spoleto was crowned co-ruler
of the Holy Roman Empire in 892 by Formosus. John VIII had earlier crowned Guy III of Spoleto, Lambert's father. Formosus
invited the Carolingian Arnulf of Carinthia to invade Italy and receive the imperial crown in 893. This attempted invasion
failed and Guy III died shortly later. The invitation was renewed in 895; Arnulf crossed the Alps and entered Rome, where
Formosus crowned him Holy Roman Emperor. Afterwards the Frankish army departed, and Arnulf and Formosus died within months
of each other in 896. Pope Boniface succeeded Formosus but died two weeks later himself. The Empress Angiltrude and her son
Arnulf entered Rome about the time Stephen VI became pope; the Cadaver Synod was conducted directly afterwards at the beginning
of 897. Until the early twentieth century, the most excepted interpretation of these events was straightforward: Formosus
had always been a pro-Carolingian, and his crowning of Lambert in 892 was coerced. When Arnulf died and the Carolingian authority
collapsed, Lambert entered Rome and forced Stephen to convene the Cadaver Synod. This not only was done to re-assert his
claim to the imperial crown, but quite possibly to exact posthumous revenge on Formosus.
Joseph Duhr put
forth some arguments refuting this view in 1932 and this view is now considered obsolete. Duhr pointed out that Lambert was
in attendance at the Ravenna Council of 898, which was convened by John XI. The decrees of the Cadaver Synod were revoked
at this proceeding. Lambert actively approved of the nullification according to the written acta of the council.
Had Lambert and Angiltrude been behing the activity of Formosus' humilition, Duhr asked, "how...was John XI have dared to
broach the odious synod for approbation of the emperor [Lambert] and his bishops? How could John XI have dared to broach the
matter...before the guilty parties, without even making the least allusion to the emperor's participation?" Girolamo Arnaldi,
the second most important scholar to write about the matter has accepted this position. He states that Formosus did not pursue
an exclusively pro-Carolingian policy, and that he even had friendly relations with Lambert as late as 895. It wasn't until
Lamber's cousing, Guy IV, invaded Benevento and expelled the Byzantines there that their relations soured. This action resulted
in Formosus sending emissaries into Bavaria to seek Arnulf's help. Arnaldi believes that it was Guido IV who entered Rome,
along with Lambert and his mother Angiltrude, in January of 897 and provided the impetus of the synod.
The Aftermath
The Outrageous
event turned the public opinion in Rome against Stephen. When Formosus' body washed up on the banks of the Tiber River, rumors
were spread that it began performing miracles. This led to a public uprising which resulted in Stephen being deposed and imprisoned.
Stephen was strangled to death in prison in either July or August of 897.
Pope Theodore
II convened a synod in November 897 which annulled the Cadaver Synod. He then rehabilitated Formosus and ordered to have him
reburied in Saint Peter's Basilica in pontifical vestments. John IX also nullified the Cadaver Synod in 898. He convened two
synods, one in Rome and one in Ravenna. These synods confirmed the findings of Theodore II. He also ordered that the acta
of the Cadaver Synod to be destroyed. Furthermore, he prohibited any future trial of a dead person.
OTHER AUTROCITIES
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