|
Why people
blame the rape victim
A victim blame bibliography
Rape is the only crime of
which the victim must prove his or her innocence.
"Perhaps we can't see
the victim as innocent, because by so doing we would have to admit that similar things might happen even to us. We blame the
victim in order to feel more in control." Anyara
What is victim blame?
"Victim blaming is holding the victim
responsible for what has happened to her/him. One way in which victim blaming is perpetuated is through rape myths. Rape myths allow us to blame the victim and are often common false beliefs."
http://www.umaine.edu/SafeCampusProject/RS.htm
Belief in a just world
Only 2% of accused rapists are convicted. In contrast FBI studies indicate that only 2% of all rape reports are false. "Low conviction rates result from insufficient evidence to prosecute, dismissal of trial due to technicalities and
reluctance of victims to testify. For these reasons, low conviction rates do not imply false reporting."
One of the main theories
behind victim blaming is the just world hypothesis. "Individuals that have a strong belief in a just world can have this
belief challenged when they encounter a victim of random misfortune such as a rape victim. The individual wants to believe
that the world is a safe, just place where people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Even when evidence suggests
otherwise, the individual is very reluctant to give up this belief that the world is not just.
In the face of contradicting
evidence, research suggests (Kleinke and Meyer, 1996) that
people with a high belief in a just world will do one
of two things: either they will try to eliminate the suffering of the innocent victims or else they will derogate them for
their fate. Since it is impossible to reverse the crime of rape, and thus relieve the victim of her suffering, the rape victim
is often subjected to derogation and blame. In this manner, the person who believes in a just world can maintain this belief
as there is no longer a suffering person, but a woman who deserves her misfortune."
No one wonders what
the victim of a mugging or violent murder did to deserve it. Rape is a crime of violence, power and control.
No one "deserves" it.
http://www.units.muohio.edu/psybersite/justworld/interpersonal.shtml
What can you expect from a survivor?
" Two main styles
of emotion were shown by the victims within the first few hours after the rape: expressed and controlled. In
the expressed style. the victim demonstrated such feelings as anger, fear and anxiety. They were restless during the
interview, becoming tense when certain questions were asked, crying or sobbing when describing specific acts of the assailant,
smiling in an anxious manner when certain issues were stated. In the controlled style, the feelings of the victim were
masked or hidden, and a calm, composed or subdued affect could be noted. "
Why do rape victims feel guilty for being the victim of a crime?
If someone verbally or physically harasses a rape victim or
survivor it may be considered a hate crime or hate speech. For immediate victim assistance call 206-350-4283
or 1 800-879-6682 24 hours a day or fill out this online hate crime report form.
"Last year
the American Psychological Association issued the report Hate Crimes Today: An Age-Old Foe in Modern Dress. In the report
Dr. Jack McDevitt, a criminologist, stated, "Hate crimes are message crimes. They are different from other crimes in that the offender is sending a message to members of a certain
group that they are unwelcome.
Preliminary research indicates that hate crimes have more serious psychological effects
than non-bias motivated crimes."
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/hatecrimes.html
The
Oxford English Dictionary defines
a hate crime as:
- Hate crime -orig. U.S., a crime, usually violent, motivated
by hatred or intolerance of another social group, esp. on the basis of
race or sexuality; crime of this type; freq. attrib. (occas. in pl.), designating legislation,
etc., framed to address such crime.
- Hate
speech -orig. U.S., speech expressing hatred or intolerance of other social groups,
esp. on the basis of race or sexuality; hostile verbal abuse (though
the term is sometimes understood to encompass written and non-verbal forms of expression).
"Fact: The incidence of false reporting
of rape is about 2 percent. This is about the same as that for false reporting of other felonies (Department of Social Services). Survivors of sexual assault are often traumatized again when they report the assault or rape since the process
of making a police report itself can be very difficult. This re-victimization makes the likelihood of false reporting very
minimal. It is far more likely that rape is very under-reported. Some experts estimate that only 1 in 10 rapes are ever reported."
http://www.ksu.edu/counseling/csweb/topics/relationships/rape.html
The Rape of Mr. Smith
Bibliography
Online resources
_____________________________________________
1)
Beyond rape myths: A more complex view of perceptions of rape victims -
Author:
Amy M. Buddie, Arthur G. Miller
Sex
Roles: A Journal of Research, August, 2001
Quote:
"This
research examined personal beliefs and perceptions of cultural stereotypes surrounding rape victims. Students (ages 18-21)
at a primarily Caucasian University listed either their personal beliefs or their perceptions of cultural stereotypes surrounding
rape victims and rated a specific rape victim either according to their personal beliefs or their perceptions of cultural
stereotypes. Personal beliefs about rape victims tended to focus more on perceptions of victim reactions to the rape (e.g.,
depression, anxiety, etc.) rather than on rape myths (e.g., she asked for it, was promiscuous, etc.). Perceptions of cultural
stereotypes, however, comprised rape myths rather than the victim reactions to rape. We propose that perceptions of rape victims
are more multifaceted than has previously been suggested."
2)
Victim blame and the disinhibition of sexual arousal
to rape vignettes.
Author: Sundberg SL, Barbaree HE, Marshall WL.
Violence Vict. 1991 Summer;6(2):103-20.
Quote:
"The present study examined the effects of differing
levels of victim blame on the sexual arousal of males to rape vignettes. In the first experiment, a between-subjects experimental
design was used to compare four groups of eight university males for their erectile responses to vignettes rated as low, medium,
and high along a victim blame continuum. All groups found a consenting vignette more arousing than a nonconsenting vignette,
however, this difference was significantly smaller for subjects in the high blame condition compared to the low and medium
blame conditions. A second experiment supported the disinhibiting effect of the high victim blame manipulation using 12 university
males in a within-subjects experimental design. The disinhibiting influence of victim blame on male sexual arousal to rape
cues was discussed in relation to our broader understanding of sexual assault."
3)
But
she was unfaithful: benevolent sexism and reactions to rape victims who violate traditional gender role expectations - Brief
Report
Author: Viki G. Tendayi
Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Sept, 2002
Quote:
"In the present research we examine victim blame in relation to different types of victims of acquaintance rape. In predicting
victim blame, we consider the role of rape myth acceptance, but our main focus is on the role of benevolent sexist beliefs."
4)
http://www.inpsyte.ca/priceg.htmlNon-Rational Guilt in Victims of Trauma
Author:Gail
M. Price, Ph.D.
The author is associated with the Trauma Clinic at Massachusetts Mental Health Center in Boston, MA
Abstract
"The guilt many victims of physical and psychological trauma experience in response to their victimization often
contains non-rational content which, when analyzed, is more appropriate to the perpetrator. This non-rational perpetrator
guilt is imposed on the victim under two primary conditions: 1) attribution, in which the perpetrator disavows guilt and blames
the victim for the victimization; and 2) terror, which results in the victim's rapid incorporation of essentially the entire
world view of the perpetrator, including the perpetrator's guilt. Guilt results when some aspect of a moral system is transgressed.
There are four aspects of a moral system reflecting different levels of guilt and four basic components of guilt within each
level. The perpetrator's violation of one aspect of a moral system may be processed by the victim at the level of another
aspect, making resolution difficult. Resolution involves careful analysis of
the content of the guilt to enable the victim to identify its source."
5)
The Rape of Mr. Smith
From "The Legal Bias Against Rape Victims (The
Rape of Mr. Smith)" by Siobhan Morrissey. American Bar Association Journal. April 1975. Reprinted by permission of the ABA
Journal.
Quote:
"The law discriminates against rape victims
in a manner that would not be tolerated by victims of any other crime. In the following situation, a lawyer asks questions
of a hold-up survivor."
6)
Rape is...discussion guide
Quote:
"From a feminist perspective, the reason people
are focused on the woman's responsibility is because it lets sexual coercers off the hook for their predatory behavior. If
you can blame the victim, you don't have to take responsibility for your own actions. It is best to steer conversations away
from this pitfall. Instead, ask, "How does this fit into the larger picture?" Part of the effort of this film is to look at
the larger picture of rape, outside of the "he said, she said" debate. What does it mean that we try to hold the victim responsible
for her rape? Does this mean we believe that women can't wear tank tops and short skirts? Does this mean we are saying women
can't go out at night? Are we saying that anyone who goes to a bar and meets someone gets what he or she deserves? Are we
saying that we don't have the right to drink and be safe from sexual assault and rape? Are we saying that being drunk is a
form of consent?"
7)
Rape Prevention with College Males: The Roles
of Victim Empathy, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Outcome Expectancies
William O’Donohue, Ph.D., Matthew
Fanetti
Quote:
"Irrational beliefs about women and sexuality (rape
myths) such as "Women really want to be raped" and "If a man pays for a date then he is entitled to sex" cause men to
rape. Finkelhor (1986) also suggests that the endorsement of rape myths act as a factor that reduces internal inhibitions
to rape. In Pithers' (Hildebran & Pithers, 1992) model of sexual offending apparently irrelevant decisions and poor victim
empathy (a cognitive-affective variable) contribute to sexual offending. McFall (1990, p.
318) has stated in his information
processing model of rape:
"This evidence paints the following portrait of sexually aggressive men. They enter heterosexual
relationships holding distorted cognitive schemata that
predispose them to sexual misunderstandings and misguided actions.
It is as though these men were 'primed' by their schemata to read positive sexual
connotations into women's neutral or
negative messages; to believe that women secretly wish to be victims of sexual coercion; to misinterpret women's refusals
of sexual advances merely as coquettish acceptances; to dismiss women's physical
resistance as a primeval sexual ritual;
to misperceive women's cries of pain as squeals of pleasure; and to redefine any attempted rebuffs as proof that women
are
'teases' who deserve whatever they get."
8)http://www.radford.edu/~gstudies/speakers/currier/violence.htm The Culture of Violence Against Women
Author: Dr. Danielle Currier
Quote:
"different forms of violence, the gendered
nature of violence, cultural aspects of and variations in violence against women, and the things unique to a college campus
that make it an environment in which violence against women is prevalent.
Dr. Currier's presentation is part of the Sexual
Assault/Domestic Violence Awareness Month activities. Sources and links listing these activities are indicated below
Dr. Currier may contacted via Email at: dmcurrier@radford.edu " Includes a bibliography and online resources.
Online Popular Resources
_____________________________________________________
1)
Author: Anyara 2003
Quote:
"Perhaps we can't see the victim as innocent, because
by so doing we would have to admit that similar things might happen even to us. We blame the victim in order to feel more
in control. "
2)
Cultural rape myths from survivors emerging
Author: Astrid
Quote:
"we have the right to live our lives without
threat of harm. The fact that women find this to nearly impossible must be changed. We face this fear every
time we leave our homes. We will find our empowerment when we can place the blame where it belongs-"
3)
Rape Coverage: Shifting the Blame
Author: Laura Flanders
Quote:
"Rape, and in particular acquaintance rape, has become
something of a human interest story-of-choice for mainstream newspaper editors recently. But more coverage has usually not
meant better.
...Instead of hearing the cries of survivors, the
press is hearing the complaints of apologists; instead of condemning cruelty,
the press promotes excuses."
4)
http://www.feminista.com/archives/v2n1/aaron.html
Dont blame victim of sexual violence
Author: Ron Aaron
Quote:
"Failing to lock doors and windows or going out alone at
night doesn't cause rape. Indeed, it's not her responsibility to prevent rape. It's his obligation to stop doing it. "
5)
http://www.feminist.com/resources/ourbodies/viol_blame.html
Blaming the Victim
Author: Boston Women's Health Book Collective
Quote:
"The most common emotional responses to sexual harassment,
battering, and rape are guilt, fear, powerlessness, shame, betrayal, anger, and denial. Guilt is often the first and deepest
response."
Scholarly Journal Articles
__________________________________________________
1)
Article title: An exploratory approach to self-blame
and self-derogation by rape victims
Journal title:American-Journal-of-Orthopsychiatry
Database to look in:Social Work Abstracts
APA citation:
Libow, J. & Doty, D. (1979). An exploratory approach
to self-blame and self-derogation by rape victims. American-Journal-of-Orthopsychiatry, 49(4), 670-679.
Abstract:
A study was undertaken to determine whether self-attributed
blame or self-derogation is empirically verifiable for acute rape victims, and whether belief in a just world and avoidance
of harm or blame are relevant explanatory constructs. Quantitative and interview data were gathered from seven rape victims.
Results supported self-blaming as an important aspect of response to rape, and future avoidance of harm rather than a belief
in a just world was found as the most relevant motive. The factor of compensation to the victim appeared important as a means
to reduce the victim's need to derogate herself as a result of the rape. The phenomenon of compassion for, or identification
with, the rapist also emerged from the data. Clinical implications of these findings for the adjustment of victims, the therapeutic
exploration of compensation, counseling strategies, and the legal system are discussed.
2)
Article title: Social Perception of Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance Modulates the Influence of
Situational Factors
Journal title: Journal-of-Interpersonal-Violence
Database to look in: Psychinfo
APA citation:
Frese,
B., Moya, M., & Megius, J. L. (2004). Social Perception of Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance Modulates the Influence of Situational
Factors. Journal-of-Interpersonal-Violence, 19(2), 143-161.
Abstract:
This study assessed the role of rape myth acceptance
(RMA) and situational factors in the perception of three different rape scenarios (date rape, marital rape, and stranger rape).
One hundred and eighty-two psychology undergraduates were asked to emit four judgements about each rape situation: victim
responsibility, perpetrator responsibility, intensity of trauma, and likelihood to report the crime to the police. It was
hypothesized that neither RMA nor situational factors alone can explain how rape is perceived; it is the interaction between
these two factors that best account for social reactions to sexual aggression. The results generally supported the authors'
hypothesis: Victim blame, estimation of trauma, and the likelihood of reporting the crime to the police were best explained
by the interaction between observer characteristics, such as RMA, and situational clues. That is, the less stereotypic the
rape situation was, the greater was the influence of attitudes toward rape on attributions.
3)
Article title: Perceptions of Stranger and Acquaintance
Rape: The Role of Benevolent and Hostile Sexism in Victim Blame and Rape Proclivity
Journal title: Journal-of-Personality-and-Social-Psychology
Database to look in: Psychinfo
APA citation:
Abrahms, D., Viky, G., Masser, B., & Gerd, B. (2003). Perceptions
of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal-of-Personality-and-Social-Psychology,
84(1), 111-125.
Abstract:
In Studies 1 and 2, after reading an acquaintance-rape
but not a stranger-rape scenario, higher benevolent sexist but not hostile sexist participants blamed the victim significantly
more. In Study 2, higher hostile sexist but not benevolent sexist male participants showed significantly greater proclivity
to commit acquaintance (but not stranger) rape. Studies 3 and 4 supported the hypothesis that the effects of benevolent sexism
and hostile sexism are mediated by different perceptions of the victim, as behaving inappropriately and as really wanting
sex with the rapist. These findings show that benevolent sexism and hostile sexism underpin different assumptions about women
that generate sexist reactions toward rape victims.
4)
Article title: Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable
control model perspective.
Journal title: Dissertation-Abstracts-International
Database to look in: PsycINFO
APA citation:
Pauwels, B. (2002). Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control
model perspective. Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-
Sciences-and-Engineering, 63(5-B), .
This is a scholarly article examing why we blame the victim rather
than the perpetrator of rape.
Abstract
"Three vignette-based studies are presented that represent the first
attempt to examine rape victim blame within the context of an explicit, comprehensive theory of blame. Study 1 examined the
hypothesis that evaluative information about a victim of rape would
have a greater effect upon victim blaming when the
victim's personal control over the rape was portrayed as somewhat elevated, rather than unambiguously low."
5)
Article title: High school and college students' attitudes
toward rape.
Journal title: Adolescence
Database to look in:Social Work Abstracts
APA citation:
Blumberg, M. & Lester, D. (1991). High school and
college students' attitudes toward rape. Adolescence, 26(103), 727-729.
Abstract:
This study explores the relationship between agreement
with myths about rape and the tendency to blame the victim in a sample of high school and college students. It was found that
high school males believed more strongly than did both high school females and college males in myths about rape, and they
assigned greater blame to the victims of rape. For both high school males and females, belief in myths about rape was associated
with assigning more blame to the victims. (Journal abstract.)
6)
Article title:
Models of Rape Judgment: attributions concerning event,
perpetrator, and victim.
Journal title:
Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
Database to look in:
psycinfo
APA citation:
Langley, T., Yost, E.A., O'Neal, E.C., Taylor, S.L.,
et al. (1991). Models of Rape Judgment: attributions concerning event, perpetrator, and victim. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation,
17, (1-2), 43-54.
Abstract
"Discusses analytical models developed to identify perceptions
that may serve as cognitive mediators of rape judgments, including blaming victims, attribution of rape culpability, date
rape attribution, and the influence of violent behavior. Victim blame appears to play little role in mediating judgment regarding
punishment, restitution, and whether or not rape occurred. Earlier onset of victim protest increased recognition of the incident
as rape, the likelihood that the offender would be convicted, and the likelihood that Ss would choose to award civil damages
to the victim. The effects of onset were mediated by perception of the victim as desiring sexual intercourse. The degree of
force used by the perpetrator yielded similar effects, mediated by the judges' perception of the incident as violent but only
for male judges."
7)
Article title: Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control
model
perspective
Journal title: Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-
Sciences-and-Engineering
Database to took in: PsycInfo
APA citation:
Pauwels, B. (2002). Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control
model perspective. Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-
Sciences-and-Engineering, 63(5-B), .
This
is a scholarly article examing why we blame the victim rather than the perpetrator of rape.
Abstract:
"Three vignette-based studies are presented that represent the
first
attempt to examine rape victim blame within the context of an
explicit, comprehensive theory of blame. Study 1 examined
the
hypothesis that evaluative information about a victim of rape would
have a greater effect upon victim blaming
when the victim's personal
control over the rape was portrayed as somewhat elevated, rather than unambiguously low."
8)
Article title: Attribution of rape blame as a function of victim gender
and sexuality, and perceived similarity to the victim
Journal title: Journal of Homosexuality
Database to look in: contemporary womens issues
APA citation:
Shaver, . (2002). Attribution of rape blame as a function of victim
gender and sexuality, and perceived similarity to the victim. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2), .
Abstract:
This study examined respondents' perceived level of blame and responsibility
for three victims of rape, as a function of attitudes toward homosexuals, and perceived similarity to the victim, as indicative
of Shaver's (1970) Defensive Attribution Hypothesis. Victims were a homosexual and heterosexual male, and a female. A sample
of 168 university students completed questionnaires, which included three rape scenarios and subsequent questions, the Index
of Attitudes Toward Homosexuals (Hudson & Ricketts, 1980), and the short-form Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale
(Reynolds, 1982). Results indicated that respondents higher in homophobia (regardless of gender) blamed the homosexual male
rape victim and the behavior and character of the heterosexual male rape victim, more than the female rape victim. Male respondents
in general also blamed the heterosexual male rape victim, more than female respondents. Shaver's defensive attribution hypothesis
was not supported. Results are discussed in terms of the possible link between homophobia and male rape blame.
9)
Article title:
Madcap Misogyny and Romanticized Victim-Blaming: Discourses of Stalking in There's Something About Mary
Journal title: Women
& Language
Database to look in: contemporary womens issues
APA citation:
Anderson , K. J. & Accomando, C. (1999). Madcap Misogyny and Romanticized
Victim-Blaming: Discourses of Stalking in There's Something About Mary. Women & Language, 1, 24-28.
Quote:
"One aspect of victim-blaming is the belief in
rape myths. Rape myths serve a patriarchal world view, in which men possess and deserve greater power and privilege than women.
Such myths include the construction that women cause, deserve, or even enjoy being raped. Blaming the victim of rape also
shifts causality in interesting ways. On the one hand, in stereotypical representations, men are depicted are powerful and
active while women are depicted as powerless and passive. On the other hand, rape myths shift causality to preserve male privilege
(in this case the right of access to women's bodies) by constructing women as agents of their own rape. Women become temptresses
and men appear at the mercy of women and of their own hormones. A more general theory to explain victim-blaming is the belief
in a just world. The "just world" hypothesis is the tendency to believe that the world is a fair and just place and that good
things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. Thus, to maintain this belief, one must search for evidence
to suggest that victims instigated their misfortune (see Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994, for a review). Ryan (1971) explains
victim-blaming as a strategy to avoid the hard work of societal change. He argues that by blaming victims for their misfortunes,
society can then work to change specific unfortunate individuals rather than change institutional and widespread prejudices.
Therefore, instead of examining why some men stalk women and why that is viewed as normal, one can examine women for characteristics
about them that must have caused them to be stalked."
10)
Article title: The relationship of optimism, empathy, internality, interpersonal violence, and gender to rape
blame under four victim conditions
Journal title: Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-Sciences-and-Engineering
Database to look in: Psychinfo
APA citation:
Moonstarr, M. (2000).
The relationship of optimism, empathy, internality, interpersonal violence, and gender to rape blame under four victim conditions.
Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-Sciences-and-Engineering, 61(3-B ), 1699.
Abstract:
The relationships of optimism, rape empathy, locus of
control, degree of acceptance of interpersonal violence, and gender upon attributions of rape blame were examined in four
experimental conditions. The conditions were four variations on one rape scenario. These conditions varied a positive or negative
character portrayal and a positive or negative behavior portrayal of the victim. Behavioral and characterological assessments
of victim blameworthiness were obtained. The dependent measures for victim blameworthiness were an index for behavioral blame
and an index for character blame. Predictor variables selected for study were those indicated in the literature as potential
mediators for rape blame attributions. Participants were 321 undergraduate and graduate students at Howard University. A questionnaire
was used to assess type of blame attributed to the victim based on the scenario as well as demographic and attitude information.
Other blame sources and victim experiences were also examined. It was hypothesized that participants would be expected to
blame a rape victim's behavior rather than character, the higher their optimism, empathy, internal locus of control and rejection
of interpersonal violence. Further, it was hypothesized that blame type would vary dependent upon participant's gender and
victim descriptions. Hypotheses were partially confirmed. Attitudes found to be related to victim-blame were primarily interpersonal
violence and secondarily empathy. In the conditions of negative behavior portrayals for victims, despite character, higher
behavioral blame was attributed. It appeared that a victim's behavior rather than character influenced attributions of either
behavior or character victim-blame. Finally, regardless of victim description, men blamed the victim's character significantly
more than women did. As another research interest, age was examined in relation to type of victim-blame. Students over the
age of 25 placed significantly less behavioral blame on the rape victim. Breaking this analysis up by scenario did not reveal
any differences in this pattern. A final research inquiry was added by examining change in victim-blame should the rape victim
insist upon condom use. Results indicated an increase in both victim-blames, which was augmented in the scenarios with negative
character descriptions.
Additional article:
McCaul, K. D., Veltum, L. G., Boyechko, V., & Crawford, J. J. (1990). Understanding attributions of victim blame for rape: Sex,
violence, and forseeability. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1-26.
|
Books
Raine, N. (1998). After Silence: Rape and My Journey Back.
New York: Crown Publications, Inc., .
Reviews available from amazon
Professional Review:
"Very soon after she was raped, Raine discovers that talking about
the rape--even to her closest friends and family--was "dangerous." Throughout the book, Raine describes how she negotiates
the mine-field of others' resistance, and she reflects on how their resistance impacted her. This focus allows for a deep
and insightful appreciation of how our cultural myths about women and rape work to marginalize survivors' speech and, as a
result, dramatically impede the healing process. She succinctly and powerfully sums up this dilemma, "Other people's embarrassment
or discomfort makes me feel as if I were the rapist's co-criminal, an accomplice who is 'confessing' something ... everyone
keeps saying I need to 'come to terms' 'integrate' the rape into my life. [How] can I come to terms if the terms are not shared?"
(pp. 212-213)." Cosgrove, Lisa PhD
If you have a resource you would like added to this page
please list it here. Comments are also welcome.
Google research-only online resources for victim blame.
Why people
blame the rape victim
A victim blame bibliography
Rape is the only crime of
which the victim must prove his or her innocence.
"Perhaps we can't see
the victim as innocent, because by so doing we would have to admit that similar things might happen even to us. We blame the
victim in order to feel more in control." Anyara
What is victim blame?
"Victim blaming is holding the victim
responsible for what has happened to her/him. One way in which victim blaming is perpetuated is through rape myths. Rape myths allow us to blame the victim and are often common false beliefs."
http://www.umaine.edu/SafeCampusProject/RS.htm
Belief in a just world
Only 2% of accused rapists are convicted. In contrast FBI studies indicate that only 2% of all rape reports are false. "Low conviction rates result from insufficient evidence to prosecute, dismissal of trial due to technicalities and
reluctance of victims to testify. For these reasons, low conviction rates do not imply false reporting."
One of the main theories
behind victim blaming is the just world hypothesis. "Individuals that have a strong belief in a just world can have this
belief challenged when they encounter a victim of random misfortune such as a rape victim. The individual wants to believe
that the world is a safe, just place where people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Even when evidence suggests
otherwise, the individual is very reluctant to give up this belief that the world is not just.
In the face of contradicting
evidence, research suggests (Kleinke and Meyer, 1996) that
people with a high belief in a just world will do one
of two things: either they will try to eliminate the suffering of the innocent victims or else they will derogate them for
their fate. Since it is impossible to reverse the crime of rape, and thus relieve the victim of her suffering, the rape victim
is often subjected to derogation and blame. In this manner, the person who believes in a just world can maintain this belief
as there is no longer a suffering person, but a woman who deserves her misfortune."
No one wonders what
the victim of a mugging or violent murder did to deserve it. Rape is a crime of violence, power and control.
No one "deserves" it.
"Rape is loss. Like death, it is best treated with a period of mourning
and grief. We should develop social ceremonies for rape, rituals, that, like funerals and wakes, would allow the mourners
to recover the spirits that the rapist, like death, steals. The social community is the appropriate center for the restoration
of spirit, but the rape victim is usually shamed into silence or self-imposed isolation," (Metzger, 1976, pp. 406)
http://www.units.muohio.edu/psybersite/justworld/interpersonal.shtml
What can you expect from a survivor?
" Two main styles
of emotion were shown by the victims within the first few hours after the rape: expressed and controlled. In
the expressed style. the victim demonstrated such feelings as anger, fear and anxiety. They were restless during the
interview, becoming tense when certain questions were asked, crying or sobbing when describing specific acts of the assailant,
smiling in an anxious manner when certain issues were stated. In the controlled style, the feelings of the victim were
masked or hidden, and a calm, composed or subdued affect could be noted. "
Why do rape victims feel guilty for being the victim of a crime?
If someone verbally or physically harasses a rape victim or
survivor it may be considered a hate crime or hate speech. For immediate victim assistance call 206-350-4283
or 1 800-879-6682 24 hours a day or fill out this online hate crime report form.
"Last year
the American Psychological Association issued the report Hate Crimes Today: An Age-Old Foe in Modern Dress. In the report
Dr. Jack McDevitt, a criminologist, stated, "Hate crimes are message crimes. They are different from other crimes in that the offender is sending a message to members of a certain
group that they are unwelcome.
Preliminary research indicates that hate crimes have more serious psychological effects
than non-bias motivated crimes."
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/hatecrimes.html
The
Oxford English Dictionary defines
a hate crime as:
- Hate crime -orig. U.S., a crime, usually violent, motivated
by hatred or intolerance of another social group, esp. on the basis of
race or sexuality; crime of this type; freq. attrib. (occas. in pl.), designating legislation,
etc., framed to address such crime.
- Hate
speech -orig. U.S., speech expressing hatred or intolerance of other social groups,
esp. on the basis of race or sexuality; hostile verbal abuse (though
the term is sometimes understood to encompass written and non-verbal forms of expression).
"Fact: The incidence of false reporting
of rape is about 2 percent. This is about the same as that for false reporting of other felonies (Department of Social Services). Survivors of sexual assault are often traumatized again when they report the assault or rape since the process
of making a police report itself can be very difficult. This re-victimization makes the likelihood of false reporting very
minimal. It is far more likely that rape is very under-reported. Some experts estimate that only 1 in 10 rapes are ever reported."
http://www.ksu.edu/counseling/csweb/topics/relationships/rape.html
The Rape of Mr. Smith
"Rape is loss. Like death, it is best treated with a period of mourning and grief. We should develop
social ceremonies for rape, rituals, that, like funerals and wakes, would allow the mourners to recover the spirits that the
rapist, like death, steals. The social community is the appropriate center for the restoration of spirit, but the rape victim
is usually shamed into silence or self-imposed isolation," (Metzger, 1976, pp. 406)
Bibliography
Online resources
_____________________________________________
1)
Beyond rape myths: A more complex view of perceptions of rape victims -
Author:
Amy M. Buddie, Arthur G. Miller
Sex
Roles: A Journal of Research, August, 2001
Quote:
"This
research examined personal beliefs and perceptions of cultural stereotypes surrounding rape victims. Students (ages 18-21)
at a primarily Caucasian University listed either their personal beliefs or their perceptions of cultural stereotypes surrounding
rape victims and rated a specific rape victim either according to their personal beliefs or their perceptions of cultural
stereotypes. Personal beliefs about rape victims tended to focus more on perceptions of victim reactions to the rape (e.g.,
depression, anxiety, etc.) rather than on rape myths (e.g., she asked for it, was promiscuous, etc.). Perceptions of cultural
stereotypes, however, comprised rape myths rather than the victim reactions to rape. We propose that perceptions of rape victims
are more multifaceted than has previously been suggested."
2)
Victim blame and the disinhibition of sexual arousal
to rape vignettes.
Author: Sundberg SL, Barbaree HE, Marshall WL.
Violence Vict. 1991 Summer;6(2):103-20.
Quote:
"The present study examined the effects of differing
levels of victim blame on the sexual arousal of males to rape vignettes. In the first experiment, a between-subjects experimental
design was used to compare four groups of eight university males for their erectile responses to vignettes rated as low, medium,
and high along a victim blame continuum. All groups found a consenting vignette more arousing than a nonconsenting vignette,
however, this difference was significantly smaller for subjects in the high blame condition compared to the low and medium
blame conditions. A second experiment supported the disinhibiting effect of the high victim blame manipulation using 12 university
males in a within-subjects experimental design. The disinhibiting influence of victim blame on male sexual arousal to rape
cues was discussed in relation to our broader understanding of sexual assault."
3)
But
she was unfaithful: benevolent sexism and reactions to rape victims who violate traditional gender role expectations - Brief
Report
Author: Viki G. Tendayi
Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Sept, 2002
Quote:
"In the present research we examine victim blame in relation to different types of victims of acquaintance rape. In predicting
victim blame, we consider the role of rape myth acceptance, but our main focus is on the role of benevolent sexist beliefs."
4)
http://www.inpsyte.ca/priceg.htmlNon-Rational Guilt in Victims of Trauma
Author:Gail
M. Price, Ph.D.
The author is associated with the Trauma Clinic at Massachusetts Mental Health Center in Boston, MA
Abstract
"The guilt many victims of physical and psychological trauma experience in response to their victimization often
contains non-rational content which, when analyzed, is more appropriate to the perpetrator. This non-rational perpetrator
guilt is imposed on the victim under two primary conditions: 1) attribution, in which the perpetrator disavows guilt and blames
the victim for the victimization; and 2) terror, which results in the victim's rapid incorporation of essentially the entire
world view of the perpetrator, including the perpetrator's guilt. Guilt results when some aspect of a moral system is transgressed.
There are four aspects of a moral system reflecting different levels of guilt and four basic components of guilt within each
level. The perpetrator's violation of one aspect of a moral system may be processed by the victim at the level of another
aspect, making resolution difficult. Resolution involves careful analysis of
the content of the guilt to enable the victim to identify its source."
5)
The Rape of Mr. Smith
From "The Legal Bias Against Rape Victims (The
Rape of Mr. Smith)" by Siobhan Morrissey. American Bar Association Journal. April 1975. Reprinted by permission of the ABA
Journal.
Quote:
"The law discriminates against rape victims
in a manner that would not be tolerated by victims of any other crime. In the following situation, a lawyer asks questions
of a hold-up survivor."
6)
Rape is...discussion guide
Quote:
"From a feminist perspective, the reason people
are focused on the woman's responsibility is because it lets sexual coercers off the hook for their predatory behavior. If
you can blame the victim, you don't have to take responsibility for your own actions. It is best to steer conversations away
from this pitfall. Instead, ask, "How does this fit into the larger picture?" Part of the effort of this film is to look at
the larger picture of rape, outside of the "he said, she said" debate. What does it mean that we try to hold the victim responsible
for her rape? Does this mean we believe that women can't wear tank tops and short skirts? Does this mean we are saying women
can't go out at night? Are we saying that anyone who goes to a bar and meets someone gets what he or she deserves? Are we
saying that we don't have the right to drink and be safe from sexual assault and rape? Are we saying that being drunk is a
form of consent?"
7)
Rape Prevention with College Males: The Roles
of Victim Empathy, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Outcome Expectancies
William O’Donohue, Ph.D., Matthew
Fanetti
Quote:
"Irrational beliefs about women and sexuality (rape
myths) such as "Women really want to be raped" and "If a man pays for a date then he is entitled to sex" cause men to
rape. Finkelhor (1986) also suggests that the endorsement of rape myths act as a factor that reduces internal inhibitions
to rape. In Pithers' (Hildebran & Pithers, 1992) model of sexual offending apparently irrelevant decisions and poor victim
empathy (a cognitive-affective variable) contribute to sexual offending. McFall (1990, p.
318) has stated in his information
processing model of rape:
"This evidence paints the following portrait of sexually aggressive men. They enter heterosexual
relationships holding distorted cognitive schemata that
predispose them to sexual misunderstandings and misguided actions.
It is as though these men were 'primed' by their schemata to read positive sexual
connotations into women's neutral or
negative messages; to believe that women secretly wish to be victims of sexual coercion; to misinterpret women's refusals
of sexual advances merely as coquettish acceptances; to dismiss women's physical
resistance as a primeval sexual ritual;
to misperceive women's cries of pain as squeals of pleasure; and to redefine any attempted rebuffs as proof that women
are
'teases' who deserve whatever they get."
8)http://www.radford.edu/~gstudies/speakers/currier/violence.htm The Culture of Violence Against Women
Author: Dr. Danielle Currier
Quote:
"different forms of violence, the gendered
nature of violence, cultural aspects of and variations in violence against women, and the things unique to a college campus
that make it an environment in which violence against women is prevalent.
Dr. Currier's presentation is part of the Sexual
Assault/Domestic Violence Awareness Month activities. Sources and links listing these activities are indicated below
Dr. Currier may contacted via Email at: dmcurrier@radford.edu " Includes a bibliography and online resources.
Online Popular Resources
_____________________________________________________
1)
Author: Anyara 2003
Quote:
"Perhaps we can't see the victim as innocent, because
by so doing we would have to admit that similar things might happen even to us. We blame the victim in order to feel more
in control. "
2)
Cultural rape myths from survivors emerging
Author: Astrid
Quote:
"we have the right to live our lives without
threat of harm. The fact that women find this to nearly impossible must be changed. We face this fear every
time we leave our homes. We will find our empowerment when we can place the blame where it belongs-"
3)
Rape Coverage: Shifting the Blame
Author: Laura Flanders
Quote:
"Rape, and in particular acquaintance rape, has become
something of a human interest story-of-choice for mainstream newspaper editors recently. But more coverage has usually not
meant better.
...Instead of hearing the cries of survivors, the
press is hearing the complaints of apologists; instead of condemning cruelty,
the press promotes excuses."
4)
http://www.feminista.com/archives/v2n1/aaron.html
Dont blame victim of sexual violence
Author: Ron Aaron
Quote:
"Failing to lock doors and windows or going out alone at
night doesn't cause rape. Indeed, it's not her responsibility to prevent rape. It's his obligation to stop doing it. "
5)
http://www.feminist.com/resources/ourbodies/viol_blame.html
Blaming the Victim
Author: Boston Women's Health Book Collective
Quote:
"The most common emotional responses to sexual harassment,
battering, and rape are guilt, fear, powerlessness, shame, betrayal, anger, and denial. Guilt is often the first and deepest
response."
Scholarly Journal Articles
__________________________________________________
1)
Article title: An exploratory approach to self-blame
and self-derogation by rape victims
Journal title:American-Journal-of-Orthopsychiatry
Database to look in:Social Work Abstracts
APA citation:
Libow, J. & Doty, D. (1979). An exploratory approach
to self-blame and self-derogation by rape victims. American-Journal-of-Orthopsychiatry, 49(4), 670-679.
Abstract:
A study was undertaken to determine whether self-attributed
blame or self-derogation is empirically verifiable for acute rape victims, and whether belief in a just world and avoidance
of harm or blame are relevant explanatory constructs. Quantitative and interview data were gathered from seven rape victims.
Results supported self-blaming as an important aspect of response to rape, and future avoidance of harm rather than a belief
in a just world was found as the most relevant motive. The factor of compensation to the victim appeared important as a means
to reduce the victim's need to derogate herself as a result of the rape. The phenomenon of compassion for, or identification
with, the rapist also emerged from the data. Clinical implications of these findings for the adjustment of victims, the therapeutic
exploration of compensation, counseling strategies, and the legal system are discussed.
2)
Article title: Social Perception of Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance Modulates the Influence of
Situational Factors
Journal title: Journal-of-Interpersonal-Violence
Database to look in: Psychinfo
APA citation:
Frese,
B., Moya, M., & Megius, J. L. (2004). Social Perception of Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance Modulates the Influence of Situational
Factors. Journal-of-Interpersonal-Violence, 19(2), 143-161.
Abstract:
This study assessed the role of rape myth acceptance
(RMA) and situational factors in the perception of three different rape scenarios (date rape, marital rape, and stranger rape).
One hundred and eighty-two psychology undergraduates were asked to emit four judgements about each rape situation: victim
responsibility, perpetrator responsibility, intensity of trauma, and likelihood to report the crime to the police. It was
hypothesized that neither RMA nor situational factors alone can explain how rape is perceived; it is the interaction between
these two factors that best account for social reactions to sexual aggression. The results generally supported the authors'
hypothesis: Victim blame, estimation of trauma, and the likelihood of reporting the crime to the police were best explained
by the interaction between observer characteristics, such as RMA, and situational clues. That is, the less stereotypic the
rape situation was, the greater was the influence of attitudes toward rape on attributions.
3)
Article title: Perceptions of Stranger and Acquaintance
Rape: The Role of Benevolent and Hostile Sexism in Victim Blame and Rape Proclivity
Journal title: Journal-of-Personality-and-Social-Psychology
Database to look in: Psychinfo
APA citation:
Abrahms, D., Viky, G., Masser, B., & Gerd, B. (2003). Perceptions
of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal-of-Personality-and-Social-Psychology,
84(1), 111-125.
Abstract:
In Studies 1 and 2, after reading an acquaintance-rape
but not a stranger-rape scenario, higher benevolent sexist but not hostile sexist participants blamed the victim significantly
more. In Study 2, higher hostile sexist but not benevolent sexist male participants showed significantly greater proclivity
to commit acquaintance (but not stranger) rape. Studies 3 and 4 supported the hypothesis that the effects of benevolent sexism
and hostile sexism are mediated by different perceptions of the victim, as behaving inappropriately and as really wanting
sex with the rapist. These findings show that benevolent sexism and hostile sexism underpin different assumptions about women
that generate sexist reactions toward rape victims.
4)
Article title: Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable
control model perspective.
Journal title: Dissertation-Abstracts-International
Database to look in: PsycINFO
APA citation:
Pauwels, B. (2002). Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control
model perspective. Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-
Sciences-and-Engineering, 63(5-B), .
This is a scholarly article examing why we blame the victim rather
than the perpetrator of rape.
Abstract
"Three vignette-based studies are presented that represent the first
attempt to examine rape victim blame within the context of an explicit, comprehensive theory of blame. Study 1 examined the
hypothesis that evaluative information about a victim of rape would
have a greater effect upon victim blaming when the
victim's personal control over the rape was portrayed as somewhat elevated, rather than unambiguously low."
5)
Article title: High school and college students' attitudes
toward rape.
Journal title: Adolescence
Database to look in:Social Work Abstracts
APA citation:
Blumberg, M. & Lester, D. (1991). High school and
college students' attitudes toward rape. Adolescence, 26(103), 727-729.
Abstract:
This study explores the relationship between agreement
with myths about rape and the tendency to blame the victim in a sample of high school and college students. It was found that
high school males believed more strongly than did both high school females and college males in myths about rape, and they
assigned greater blame to the victims of rape. For both high school males and females, belief in myths about rape was associated
with assigning more blame to the victims. (Journal abstract.)
6)
Article title:
Models of Rape Judgment: attributions concerning event,
perpetrator, and victim.
Journal title:
Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
Database to look in:
psycinfo
APA citation:
Langley, T., Yost, E.A., O'Neal, E.C., Taylor, S.L.,
et al. (1991). Models of Rape Judgment: attributions concerning event, perpetrator, and victim. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation,
17, (1-2), 43-54.
Abstract
"Discusses analytical models developed to identify perceptions
that may serve as cognitive mediators of rape judgments, including blaming victims, attribution of rape culpability, date
rape attribution, and the influence of violent behavior. Victim blame appears to play little role in mediating judgment regarding
punishment, restitution, and whether or not rape occurred. Earlier onset of victim protest increased recognition of the incident
as rape, the likelihood that the offender would be convicted, and the likelihood that Ss would choose to award civil damages
to the victim. The effects of onset were mediated by perception of the victim as desiring sexual intercourse. The degree of
force used by the perpetrator yielded similar effects, mediated by the judges' perception of the incident as violent but only
for male judges."
7)
Article title: Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control
model
perspective
Journal title: Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-
Sciences-and-Engineering
Database to took in: PsycInfo
APA citation:
Pauwels, B. (2002). Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control
model perspective. Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-
Sciences-and-Engineering, 63(5-B), .
This
is a scholarly article examing why we blame the victim rather than the perpetrator of rape.
Abstract:
"Three vignette-based studies are presented that represent the
first
attempt to examine rape victim blame within the context of an
explicit, comprehensive theory of blame. Study 1 examined
the
hypothesis that evaluative information about a victim of rape would
have a greater effect upon victim blaming
when the victim's personal
control over the rape was portrayed as somewhat elevated, rather than unambiguously low."
8)
Article title: Attribution of rape blame as a function of victim gender
and sexuality, and perceived similarity to the victim
Journal title: Journal of Homosexuality
Database to look in: contemporary womens issues
APA citation:
Shaver, . (2002). Attribution of rape blame as a function of victim
gender and sexuality, and perceived similarity to the victim. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2), .
Abstract:
This study examined respondents' perceived level of blame and responsibility
for three victims of rape, as a function of attitudes toward homosexuals, and perceived similarity to the victim, as indicative
of Shaver's (1970) Defensive Attribution Hypothesis. Victims were a homosexual and heterosexual male, and a female. A sample
of 168 university students completed questionnaires, which included three rape scenarios and subsequent questions, the Index
of Attitudes Toward Homosexuals (Hudson & Ricketts, 1980), and the short-form Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale
(Reynolds, 1982). Results indicated that respondents higher in homophobia (regardless of gender) blamed the homosexual male
rape victim and the behavior and character of the heterosexual male rape victim, more than the female rape victim. Male respondents
in general also blamed the heterosexual male rape victim, more than female respondents. Shaver's defensive attribution hypothesis
was not supported. Results are discussed in terms of the possible link between homophobia and male rape blame.
9)
Article title:
Madcap Misogyny and Romanticized Victim-Blaming: Discourses of Stalking in There's Something About Mary
Journal title: Women
& Language
Database to look in: contemporary womens issues
APA citation:
Anderson , K. J. & Accomando, C. (1999). Madcap Misogyny and Romanticized
Victim-Blaming: Discourses of Stalking in There's Something About Mary. Women & Language, 1, 24-28.
Quote:
"One aspect of victim-blaming is the belief in
rape myths. Rape myths serve a patriarchal world view, in which men possess and deserve greater power and privilege than women.
Such myths include the construction that women cause, deserve, or even enjoy being raped. Blaming the victim of rape also
shifts causality in interesting ways. On the one hand, in stereotypical representations, men are depicted are powerful and
active while women are depicted as powerless and passive. On the other hand, rape myths shift causality to preserve male privilege
(in this case the right of access to women's bodies) by constructing women as agents of their own rape. Women become temptresses
and men appear at the mercy of women and of their own hormones. A more general theory to explain victim-blaming is the belief
in a just world. The "just world" hypothesis is the tendency to believe that the world is a fair and just place and that good
things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. Thus, to maintain this belief, one must search for evidence
to suggest that victims instigated their misfortune (see Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994, for a review). Ryan (1971) explains
victim-blaming as a strategy to avoid the hard work of societal change. He argues that by blaming victims for their misfortunes,
society can then work to change specific unfortunate individuals rather than change institutional and widespread prejudices.
Therefore, instead of examining why some men stalk women and why that is viewed as normal, one can examine women for characteristics
about them that must have caused them to be stalked."
10)
Article title: The relationship of optimism, empathy, internality, interpersonal violence, and gender to rape
blame under four victim conditions
Journal title: Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-Sciences-and-Engineering
Database to look in: Psychinfo
APA citation:
Moonstarr, M. (2000).
The relationship of optimism, empathy, internality, interpersonal violence, and gender to rape blame under four victim conditions.
Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-Sciences-and-Engineering, 61(3-B ), 1699.
Abstract:
The relationships of optimism, rape empathy, locus of
control, degree of acceptance of interpersonal violence, and gender upon attributions of rape blame were examined in four
experimental conditions. The conditions were four variations on one rape scenario. These conditions varied a positive or negative
character portrayal and a positive or negative behavior portrayal of the victim. Behavioral and characterological assessments
of victim blameworthiness were obtained. The dependent measures for victim blameworthiness were an index for behavioral blame
and an index for character blame. Predictor variables selected for study were those indicated in the literature as potential
mediators for rape blame attributions. Participants were 321 undergraduate and graduate students at Howard University. A questionnaire
was used to assess type of blame attributed to the victim based on the scenario as well as demographic and attitude information.
Other blame sources and victim experiences were also examined. It was hypothesized that participants would be expected to
blame a rape victim's behavior rather than character, the higher their optimism, empathy, internal locus of control and rejection
of interpersonal violence. Further, it was hypothesized that blame type would vary dependent upon participant's gender and
victim descriptions. Hypotheses were partially confirmed. Attitudes found to be related to victim-blame were primarily interpersonal
violence and secondarily empathy. In the conditions of negative behavior portrayals for victims, despite character, higher
behavioral blame was attributed. It appeared that a victim's behavior rather than character influenced attributions of either
behavior or character victim-blame. Finally, regardless of victim description, men blamed the victim's character significantly
more than women did. As another research interest, age was examined in relation to type of victim-blame. Students over the
age of 25 placed significantly less behavioral blame on the rape victim. Breaking this analysis up by scenario did not reveal
any differences in this pattern. A final research inquiry was added by examining change in victim-blame should the rape victim
insist upon condom use. Results indicated an increase in both victim-blames, which was augmented in the scenarios with negative
character descriptions.
Additional article:
McCaul, K. D., Veltum, L. G., Boyechko, V., & Crawford, J. J. (1990). Understanding attributions of victim blame for rape: Sex,
violence, and forseeability. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1-26.
|
Books
Raine, N. (1998). After Silence: Rape and My Journey Back.
New York: Crown Publications, Inc., .
Reviews available from amazon
Professional Review:
"Very soon after she was raped, Raine discovers that talking about
the rape--even to her closest friends and family--was "dangerous." Throughout the book, Raine describes how she negotiates
the mine-field of others' resistance, and she reflects on how their resistance impacted her. This focus allows for a deep
and insightful appreciation of how our cultural myths about women and rape work to marginalize survivors' speech and, as a
result, dramatically impede the healing process. She succinctly and powerfully sums up this dilemma, "Other people's embarrassment
or discomfort makes me feel as if I were the rapist's co-criminal, an accomplice who is 'confessing' something ... everyone
keeps saying I need to 'come to terms' 'integrate' the rape into my life. [How] can I come to terms if the terms are not shared?"
(pp. 212-213)." Cosgrove, Lisa PhD
If you have a resource you would like added to this page
please list it here. Comments are also welcome.
Google research-only online resources for victim blame.
"Rape is loss. Like death, it is best treated with a period of mourning
and grief. We should develop social ceremonies for rape, rituals, that, like funerals and wakes, would allow the mourners
to recover the spirits that the rapist, like death, steals. The social community is the appropriate center for the restoration
of spirit, but the rape victim is usually shamed into silence or self-imposed isolation," (Metzger, 1976, pp. 406)
|
