Canada

Canada-Ulster heritage site.

Geography

Canada is a federation of ten provinces. Consisting of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia) and two territories (the Yukon and Northwest Territories. A third territory (Nunavut) is to be formed in 1999.
Canada is the second largest country in the world. It occupies the northern half of the North American continent and has borders with the US to the south and the northwest (Alaska). It is bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Arctic Ocean to the north and the Atlantic Ocean the the east. Its indented shores and numerous islands (some of them very large) give it the longest coastline of any country at 244,000km. Canada's northernmost point, Cape Columbia on Ellesmere Island, is 768km from the North Pole.
Area: 9,976,185 sq. km (3,851,809 sq. miles).
Topography: The landscape ranges from the northern Arctic region to the wide central prairies and encompasses mountain ranges and vast lakes. There are six physical regions. The first and largest is the Precambrian (or Canadian) Shield, the dominant geological feature of the country. It is a vast area of ancient, very hard rocks, occupying nearly half of Canada's total area and consisting of plateau like highlands with thousands of lakes and rivers. Almost a quarter of the world's fresh water is concentrated here. The second region is that of the Appalachian mountains to the east. The Appalachians, an extension of the Appalachian mountain system in the US, cover Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and part of Quebec. The mountains have been eroded by glaciers, wind and water over the years; their highest elevation, in Gaspe's Shickshock Mountains, is under 1,300m. The third region is that of the Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowlands in the south-east, stretching from Quebec City to Lake Huron. It is the country's most productive agricultural area. The fertile prairies, the fourth region, are a seemingly endless expanse of land and sky, rising gently from Manitoba to Alberta and spreading northward through the Mackenzie River Valley to the Arctic Ocean. The Western Cordillera, the fifth region, is a rocky spine of mountains along the Pacific coastline. The Cordillera stretches from South America to Alaska, and the Canadian portion includes many peaks over 3,000m (10,000ft), the highest being in the Rocky Mountains. The Arctic region, finally, consists of hundreds of islands, covering an area of 2,800 x 1,800km and reaching to Canada's northern tip.
Climate: There are wide regional variations in climate. In the High Arctic, temperatures rise above freezing for only a few weeks in July/August. The boreal forest area is snow-bound for more than half the year and precipitation is light, except along the Labrador coast. The eastern Atlantic region has changeable winter temperatures and heavy snowfall. Fog is common, especially in Newfoundland. July/August temperatures are 16-18°C. Winter also brings heavy snowfall to the Great Lakes-St Lawrence River region; but summer temperatures average almost 20°C, with heat waves. The prairies have cold winters and hot summers, with rapid air flow bringing dramatic weather changes. Annual average precipitation in southern Saskatchewan is less than 350mm, compared with 1,100mm in Vancouver, to the west. The west coast of British Columbia has the most temperate climate in Canada.

Vegetation: 49% of Canada is covered by forests. The Appalachian region is heavily wooded, with mixed sugar maple and spruce. Similar forests flourish in the Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowlands, while white pine, spruce and fir thrive in the south of the Precambrian Shield. The far north of the Shield and the Arctic are too cold for trees, but mosses, lichens, short grasses and dwarf shrubs burst into life and quickly fade m a six-week summer A desert like sweep of short grasses in the southernmost parts of Alberta and Saskatchewan is succeeded further north by fertile grasslands, where millions of ponds provide breeding grounds for half of North America's ducks, geese, swans and pelicans, and for mosquitoes. Huge trees grow near the west coast, including some thousand-year-old Douglas firs. Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), thought to have arrived from Europe a century ago, is causing havoc to wildlife in marshes, ponds and stream banks.
Wildlife: Canada has 34 National Parks, including the Rocky Mountains NP. In the tundra of the far north are found seals, polar bears, the gigantic musk-ox and caribou. In the extensive stretches of forest are moose, brown and black and grizzly bears, and the beaver, one of Canada's national symbols. The grasslands were once home to enormous herds of bison but these were hunted to near extinction and are now only to be found in wildlife reserves.
Main Towns and Cities: Toronto (3,893,000, 1991), Montreal (3,127,000), Vancouver (1,603,000), Ottawa-Hull (921,000, 1991), Edmonton, Calgary, Winnipeg, Quebec, Hamilton.

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Population: 30m (1996); has doubled since 1945. Although the birth rate has nearly halved since the 1950s to 14 per 1,000 (1995) the population grew by an average 1.3% p.a., 1985-94. Immigrants represent 16.1% of the population (1991 census). Population density, at three persons per sq. km (1996), is very low, but large areas are climatically hostile and 80% of the population is concentrated in Quebec, Ontario, Alberta and British Columbia. 85% of Canadians live within 150 km of the US border. Metropolitan areas accounted for some 61% of the population in 1991. Life expectancy (1995) is 78 years (74 for men and 81 for women).
Ethnic composition: In the 1991 census 29% of the population (nearly 8m) stated that they came from more than one ethnic group. Of those coming from a single ethnic group, 28% are of British origin, 23% French; 15% have other single European origin (most German, Italian and Ukrainian). The proportion with Asian origins rose from 3.5% in 1986 to 5.1% in 1991. Indigenous Amerindians and Inuit are recorded as 1.7% of the population, although more Canadians are claiming aboriginal origins. 51% of people in the Northwest Territories, and 14% in the Yukon reported single aboriginal origin. (Figures from 1991 census.) More than 250,000 immigrants arrive each year from over 150 countries. Immigration from Asia, particularly Hong Kong, has increased, notably in British Columbia. With the takeover of Hong Kong in 1997, Chinese immigration is expected to peak. Canada is interested in entrepreneurial immigrants, but also has a good record for accepting refugees and, in 1986, was awarded the UN's Nansen medal for its refugee policies.
Religion: 83.2% of Canadians are Christians, comprising: 45.7% Roman Catholic, 36% Protestant (United Church of Canada, Anglican Church of Canada, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Baptist, Pentecostal and others) and 1.5% Eastern Orthodox. 1.2% are Jewish and 1% adhere to Islam and small percentages to Buddhism, Hinduism and other faiths.
Language: Official languages are English and French. 61% speak English only, 24% French only, 16% speak both. Other languages spoken as a mother tongue are Italian, Chinese, German and Spanish (1991). Chinese is gaining in strength. In the prairies, the most common non-official mother tongue is German; in central Canada, Italian; in British Columbia, Chinese; in the Northwest Territories, Inuktitut; in the Yukon, the Athapaskan languages of the Dene family; and in the Atlantic region, Micmac. Canada's aboriginal people speak some 50 languages, belonging to 11 distinct linguistic families.
Education: Government spending on education has risen steadily over the past decade, reaching C$48.2bn in 1990/91. The biggest expense is salaries (900,000 personnel, 297,100 of them teachers). According to Unesco, illiteracy is less than 5%. All Canadians must attend school from the age of 6 or 7 (depending on the province) to 15 or 16. In 1990/91, 6.2m students studied full time at Canadian educational and vocational institutions, with another 502,700 studying part time at universities and colleges. An additional 15% of the population participated in continuing adult education and training activities. Full-time enrolments at universities and community colleges increased by 33% in the decade to 1990/91 and, since 1987/8 women have outnumbered men.
Health: Canada spent over 9% of GDP on health care in 1992. A series of provincial plans gives nationwide health insurance cover. In 1990 there were some 1,237 public, private and federal hospitals and 6,266 residential care facilities. Between 1980 and 1990, the number of people per doctor fell from 650 to 518. The escalating cost of the Medicare system is a subject of political concern. The leading causes of death are circulatory system diseases, cancer, respiratory diseases and accidents. Serious health problems include AIDS: 7,770 reported cases and 5,128 deaths by early 1993. Actual cases are estimated at almost 11,000. Smoking has declined, especially among men (54% in 1966 to 26% in 1991); over the same period, figures for women fell only slightly, from 28% to 26%. Obesity in the 20-64 age group has increased from 17% to 23%, particularly among men, while 25% of 20-24 year-old women are underweight.
Social welfare: Income safety nets include the Employment Insurance (EI) programme, which protects those who lose all or a significant portion of their employment income; and workers' compensation legislation. However, with greater austerity in the 1990s, the generous EI benefits have been subject to reform and progressive reduction since 1990, a familiar trend in mature economies. Further reform of social security is under way. Maternity leave and job security before and after childbirth are guaranteed.
Employment: The total labour force in 1994 was 14,100,000. During the 1980s Canada enjoyed buoyant growth and job creation, unemployment fell from 14% in March 1983 to 7.5% in 1989. It subsequently rose again during the downturn of the early 1990s, reaching 11.3 % in 1992 before falling to 10.4% in 1994. Younger and unskilled Canadians were particularly affected by the loss of 330,000 jobs in the early 1990s recession. The average duration of unemployment has increased but is still primarily short-term (less than six months). Newfoundland has the highest unemployment and suffered a major blow with a two-year moratorium on cod fishing. Agriculture employs 1 in 20 workers, fallen from one in four after 1945. Most farms are family-operated, but farm employment is declining; even in Saskatchewan farmers number only 16%. More than 100,000 of Canada's 391,000 farmers are women (1991). Apart from agriculture, the largest sectors in terms of numbers employed are services (excluding financial services and real estate) with 38%, trade with 18% and manufacturing with 15%. Women made up 45% of the labour force in 1992, compared to 31% in 1966. Part-time employment more than doubled, 1975-92, to over 2m.

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Media: There is no national daily newspaper, but the Toronto Globe & Mail has national distribution. In 1991 there were 106 daily newspapers (11 in French and 95 in English), with a combined circulation of 5.8m, down from 6.3m in 1989. Non-dailies include 1,215 community papers (1989), with a combined circulation of 117.2m. The largest Canadian news service is the Canadian Press (CP). Nearly 1,500 periodicals (1990/91), cover consumer, business, farm, religious or scholarly matters. The federally owned Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) operates French and English TV networks; CBC North (including programmes in seven native languages); Newsworld; and Radio Canada International. There is also a national private television network (M), several regional networks and other private stations. Over 90% of radio stations are privately owned (498 in 1991); however, the CBC operates the only large radio network. Canada's 1,800 licensed cable operators provided up to 60 channels in 1991; cable television now reaches 65% of households.
Mail/Post: Canada Post operates 25 major mail processing plants and 5,300 vehicles. The first hologram stamp was produced in 1992. Another innovation has been hybrid mail - a marriage of telecommunication and traditional mail delivery, one example of which is volume electronic mail. Omnipost allows subscribers to prepare messages on their personal computers for delivery by Lettermail, fax and electronic mail. Poste Restante facilities are available. Intelpost offers satellite transmission of documents and photographs. Telegraph and telex services are available from CNCP Telecommunications.
Telecoms: IDD (code 01) is available. There were 14m telephones in 1993, over 70% for residential use. Telecom Canada has more than 90% of subscribers; Bell Canada is an important operator in Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland and Northwest Territories. The telecoms industry has been deregulated and is becoming increasingly competitive, with the provision of Internet services a strong growth area, and the proposed development of the wireless telephone, an alternative to the cellular technology.

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Road travel: Nearly 17m motor vehicles were registered in 1990, up 4% from 1988. Passenger cars make up 74%, followed by trucks. In 1991 there were some 288,989km of highways and roads. The 7,821km Trans-Canada Highway is the longest national highway in the world. Expenditure on highways totalled over C$7bn in 1992. The provinces have jurisdiction over highways. Some toll routes are built by private developers. Coach lines, among them the Greyhound Bus Company, serve all regions. Metropolitan buses have flat-rate fares which must be paid exactly. In 1991, Canada's major urban transit systems carried 1.4bn passengers.
Rail: East-west routes predominate on both the Canadian National Railway (CN) and the Canadian Pacific Railway (CP), both privately owned. Total track length was 91,365km in 1990, including regional railways. Passenger mileage has dropped to a monthly average of 264m. Passenger services were reduced in January 1990, following cuts in federal subsidies.
Sea and Waterways: The St Lawrence Seaway, opened in 1959, provides a water transport system from the Atlantic Ocean to the head of the Great Lakes. It has a system of locks to lift vessels 170m between Montreal and Lake Superior. The country's ports handled 351 m tonnes of cargo in 1991. Vancouver was the busiest port in 1991, handling nearly 71m tonnes of cargo.
Air: Air Canada (AC), which is privatised, and Canadian Airlines International (CAIL) provide scheduled domestic and international air services, while just over 100 smaller carriers cover shorter routes and a further 600 provide charter services. Remote areas are accessible only by air. In 1991 there were 512 certified and 658 non-certified aerodromes. Both AC and CAIL are running at a loss and CAIL has sought an alliance with American Airlines.

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Unit of currency: Canadian dollar (C$). Exchange rate C$1.44 US$1 (20 September 1996). The C$, at parity with the US$ until 1976, fell to C$1.43 : US$1 in February 1986, then began a modest recovery, remaining generally strong in the late 80s and early 90s; but since depreciating. Concern over the country's large public sector deficit and the accumulation of debt has affected the currency since1993-4.
Overview: Over the past century, Canada has transformed its economy. Until the early 20thC it was a predominantly agricultural nation and after World War 2 a quarter of the working population was still engaged in agriculture. Today Canada is a highly industrialised nation, with manufacturing contributing nearly 19% of GDP, as against 3% from agriculture, forestry and fishing.

Like other mature economics, Canada has developed its service industries. Finance, insurance and real estate represent 17% of GDP, distributive trades 12%, government services 6% and other services 23%. Tourism has become a leading industry. Ontario is the centre of economic activity and the province with the largest manufacturing base and agricultural sector. It accounts for 40% of GDP. Toronto, Ontario, is the country's leading financial and services centre.

Canada is exceptionally well endowed with natural resources: minerals, petroleum and natural gas, forests, coastal waters for fishing, and rivers and falls permitting hydroelectric power. Foreign trade has long been a significant economic activity. While industrial exports predominate today, exports of agricultural, fish and forest products continue to play a significant part.

Canada's economic identity has a strongly regional flavour, and economic ties with the US have been strengthened by the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA), which Mexico has also joined. Economic ties with Britain and Europe have declined.

GNP: Canada is a high income country with GNP per capita of US$19,570 (1994). Real annual GNP per capita growth averaged 0.4% during 1985-94. Total GNP was US$569,949m in 1994. Economic activity was buoyant in the 1980s, with real GDP growth peaking at 6.3% in 1984, but the economy went into recession during the early 1990s. After negative growth in 1990 and 1991, there were two years of modest recovery, followed by stronger growth of 4.6% in 1994. In 1995, GDP growth was 2.2%.
Inflation: Consumer price inflation was 12.5% in 1981, then remained at just above 4% throughout the rest of the 1980s; however, it rose again to 6.8% in January 1991, when the Goods and Services Tax (GST) was introduced. Since then it has fallen and remained low, running at 1.5% in mid-1996.
Investment: Canada's external assets amounted to C$239bn at the end of 1992, some 41% in the form of direct investment abroad and 27% as private holdings of foreign stocks, bonds and deposits. Foreign direct investment in Canada amounted to C$137bn at the end of 1992. In 1985 the government liberalised investment regulations. The US accounted for about 80% of foreign ownership of Canadian manufacturing companies in the early 1990s, followed by Britain with about 14%. Asia -Pacific investment is increasing.
Trade: Canada is the world's seventh largest exporter and importer. Its main trading partner is the US and the trade flow between Canada and the US is the largest in the world between any two countries. There are strong intra-industry links between, in particular, the motor and aircraft industries in both countries. Many US corporations operate subsidiaries in Canada. The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1989 cemented the close economic ties between the two countries and was subsequently enlarged to include Mexico by the North American Free Trade Agreement, which created the largest trading area in the world. Canada's other major trading partners are Japan, Britain, Germany and China. Total foreign trade in 1995 was: exports CS$263.7bn, imports C$225.5bn. The trade balance was US$38.2bn. Chief exports in 1995 were automobile products, machinery and equipment, industrial products, forest products, energy products, agricultural and fish products. Chief imports were machines and equipment, automobile products, industrial goods, consumer goods. and agricultural and fish products.
Currency restrictions: None.
Regional affiliations: Member of the North American Free Trade Association.

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Agriculture: Agriculture accounts for only 3% of GDP but remains an important source of export earnings. 280,043 census farms (those that produce agricultural products intended for sale) were recorded in 199 1, down 4.5% from 1986. However, the number of larger farms grew during 1986-9 1, from 1 1 0,000 to 1 1 8,000. Government intervention is extensive, and more than half of all farm revenue passes through various marketing boards and schemes, most notably that of wheat and dairy producers. About 75% of Canada's high-quality wheat is exported. Government subsidies for grain transportation are to end.

Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta contain 82% of the farmland: the prairie grain seas. In 1994, 22m tons of wheat were produced and 7.1 m tons of oilseed rape (known as canola). The prairies also support a large beef cattle industry, worth C$12,430m in 1994. In the Atlantic provinces, mixed farming (both grain and livestock) is most common. Forage crops predominate in Ontario, while the lush Niagara peninsula produces most of Canada's fruit and grapes. In Quebec, more than half the commercial farms are dairy farms; this province is also the world's largest producer of maple syrup. Only 2% of land in British Columbia is used for agriculture; predominantly dairy and livestock farming. However, the Okanagan Valley in this province is Canada's largest producer of apples. The north has an estimated 1.3m ha. of potentially arable land and large expanses of grazing land, but only 140 farms (1991).

Fisheries: Canada is the world's largest exporter of fish. In 1994 Canadian production of fish products amounted to more than C$3.2bn, of which more than 80% was exported. In recent years more than 40,000 jobs have been lost as a result of reductions in fishing quotas agreed in 1993 to preserve stocks. In December 1993 all but one of the major cod fisheries on the Atlantic coast were closed, though there were indications by 1996 that cod stocks were recovering. There was conflict between the Canadian government and the EU in 1995 over quotas and fishing practices, triggered by Spanish trawlers fishing just outside the Canadian 200-mile limit.
Forestry: Canada is the world's largest exporter of timber, pulp and newsprint, and produces 40% of the world's newsprint. 65% of forests are classified as productive. British Columbia, Quebec and Ontario account for 80% of output. In 1992, 56 million cu m of sawn timber was produced, 23m tons of wood pulp and 9m tons of newsprint.
Manufacturing: Manufacturing and process industries include steel and smelting, textiles, leather, non-metallic minerals, paper and board, and fabricated metals (all of which slumped in the 1990/92 recession, but have since shown recovery). Refined petroleum, coal products, tobacco, food products, printing and publishing have been growth industries. Chemicals, wood products and plastic products are also important. Motor production stood at over 2m units in 1993. Manufacture of aluminium in 1992 was 1.9m tonnes, up from 1.8m tonnes the previous year; while steel production increased to 13.8m tonnes in 1992 from 12.9m tonnes in 1991. The trend in manufacture is towards higher value-added products.

Mining: Canada is the world's leading producer of zinc (est. 940,000 tons in 1994) and uranium (est. 11,000kg in 1994) and a major producer of nickel, asbestos, potash, copper, lead and iron ore. It is the world's largest exporter of potash. Large reserves of nickel, copper and cobalt were recently discovered in Labrador. Canadian exploration expenditures totalled an estimated C$420m in 1992, down from C$775m in 1990. Non-metal production also includes sulphur and salt. On a per capita basis, Canada is the world's largest consumer of salt, which is used on icy roads.
Tourism: Tourism contributes around C$25bn p.a. More than two-thirds, however, comes from internal travel by Canadians. Around 78% of foreign visitors to Canada came from the US in 1994, contributing C$6.7bn of revenue. However, Canadians travelling abroad spent C$16.4bn in 1993.
Energy: The inhabitants of this cold country consume more energy per capita than any other industrialised country, but Canada has extensive natural resources of oil, gas, coal and uranium, providing trade surpluses for all fuels. It has 25-year proven reserves of natural gas and nine years of oil. 22 nuclear power plants are in operation. Hydropower provides two-thirds of electricity and over 30% of domestic energy requirements. Churchill Falls, Labrador (1,230mw), is the largest hydroelectric complex in the world, and new hydroelectric projects are planned. Nearly 50bn kwh of electricity was exported to the US in 1994.

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Time Zones: Canada spans six time zones: Pacific Standard Time (GMT minus 8hr), Mountain Standard Time (GMT minus 7hr), Central Standard Time (GMT minus 6hr), Eastern Standard Time (GMT minus 5hr), Atlantic Standard Time (GMT minus 4hr), Newfoundland Standard Time (GMT minus 3.5hr). Note: From the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October, one hour is added for Daylight Saving Time (except in Saskatchewan).
Electricity: 110 volts AC, 60Hz; American-style (flat) 2-pin plugs are standard.
Driving and local transport: Vehicles keep to the right. An international driving licence is recommended, though visitors may use national driving licences for three months. Road speeds are 100kph (60mph) on motorways, 80kph (50mph) on rural highways and 50kph (30mph) in cities, with some 40kph (25mph) zones. Coach travel is cheap and convenient. Town buses have flat-rate fares which must be paid exactly. Car rental is readily available.
Business and social conventions: Handshaking is the usual form of greeting. Visitors should be aware of smoking restrictions. City of Toronto restaurants and bars leglislated non smoking! Dress according to climate: social dress is generally informal and practical.

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North America has been inhabited for over 25,000 years, by Amerindian and Inuit peoples who migrated from Asia, crossing the Bering Strait. By 1600 the indigenous population of present-day Canada may have been around 250,000. These native inhabitants, living in bands and larger tribes, developed a sophisticated culture where climatic conditions were not too hostile. Populations thrived in the east and on the prairies, with the Algonquian-speaking and Iroquian-speaking peoples constituting the largest linguistic groups. A rich culture also developed in the west and along the Pacific coast.
The first Europeans to arrive, in about 1000 AD, were the Vikings under Leif Ericson, who founded short-lived settlements in Newfoundland and Labrador. The next wave of Europeans arrived in search of an imagined north-west passage to Asia, which they found blocked by the Canadian landmass. However, the abundance of fish off Newfoundland attracted French, Spanish, Portuguese and English fishermen from the 16thC onwards. Settlements developed as bases for the fish and fur trade. English settlements developed in Newfoundland and the Atlantic seaboard.
The English Hudson's Bay Company, founded in 1670, claimed trading rights over Rupert's Land, the area whose rivers drained into Hudson Bay. Samuel de Champlain founded the colony of New France or Quebec in 1608. In 1663 Quebec became a Royal Province, with a Governor entrusted with the general policy of the colony, the direction of its military affairs and its relations with the Indian tribes. The Roman Catholic church, as a result of its Jesuit missions, became a powerful force. The population of the British settlements was largely Protestant, laying the basis for the religious and cultural diversity of Canada today.
Fish and fur trade rivalry between France and England was reinforced by wars in Europe. In 1713, France surrendered all claims to Rupert's Land, Nova Scotia and French settlements in Newfoundland. In 1763, France lost the rest of Canada apart from two small islands, St Pierre and Miquelon. From 1763 until the 1775 American War of Independence, the whole of North America to the east of the Mississippi was held by Britain, the various colonies having a population of nearly 2m. In 1774 the Quebec Act, passed by the British Parliament, secured for the French colonists the right to retain their language, religion and civil law. As a result of the American Revolution, about 35,000 Loyalists moved north to remain under British rule.
In 1791 the country was divided between the English-speaking and French-speaking regions - Upper Canada (now Ontario) and Lower Canada (now Quebec). The US relinquished claims to Vancouver Island in 1846. British North American colonies were swelled by immigration from Europe in the 183Os-50s.
The British North America Act of 1867 brought together four British colonies - Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. These were 'federally united' to form 'One Dominion under the name of Canada'. Rupert's Land and the Northwestern Territory, relinquished for compensation by the Hudson's Bay Company, joined the federation as the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories in 1870. (Alaska, however, was bought by the US from the Russians in 1867.) The colony of British Columbia joined in 1871 and Prince Edward Island in 1873. The Treaty of Washington in 1871 ended American hopes of Canada becoming part of the US.
In the 20thC the confederation continued growing: Alberta and Saskatchewan were created as new provinces in 1905, Norway abandoned claims to the Sverdrup islands in 1931 and Newfoundland joined in 1949. Although Canadians rejected a comprehensive offer of trade reciprocity with the US in 1911, economic interdependence between the two countries began to develop in the 1930s. In the late 19thC the population of the country was still small: measured by the 1871 census the population was 3.7m, three-quarters of whom were rural. An important factor in unifying the country was the building of the transcontinental railway, completed, after various setbacks, in the 1880s.
After 1867 there still remained a number of limitations on the internal self-governing powers of the Canadian government; also on Canada's conduct of foreign affairs. After half a million Canadians had fought in the 191418 war, Canada was no longer willing to play the role of a colony in world affairs. The Balfour formula of 1926, endorsed by the Statute of Westminster in 193 1, set the seal on Canada's status as a sovereign country having complete independence within the Commonwealth. Following an initiative by the Ottawa government, the disputes between the federal government and provinces were largely resolved. A new Canadian constitution came into effect on 17 April 1982.

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Canada's criminal and civil law systems are based on English common law. In Quebec, civil law (le droit civil) derives from the Code Napoleon. The Constitution Act 1982, lays down the areas of authority of federal and provincial governments. All laws are subject to the provisions of this Act and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.The Supreme Court represents the highest court of appeal. It is made up of a chief justice and nine puisne (puisine) judges, three of whom must come from Quebec. The Federal Court is divided into a Trial Division and an Appeal Division.
It hears a variety of cases, dealing with claims against the government and handling such matters as patents, copyright and maritime law. The provinces have jurisdiction for provincial justice, civil law and procedure and enforcement of provincial laws. The names of the courts vary, but each province has a three-tiered system. The Prime Minister, through the Governor-General, appoints judges except those of the provincial courts. The judiciary is independent.

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Canada is a constitutional monarchy, with HM Queen Elizabeth I I (officially titled 'Queen of Canada') as titular Head of State, represented by a Governor-General appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The British North America Act of 1867 set up a machinery of government that has remained basically unchanged; however, the Constitution is contained in the Constitution Act of 1982, which includes the Charter of Rights and Freedoms as well as procedure for amending the Constitution. Universal adult franchise was introduced in 1921.
Government has a federal structure, with ten provincial governments and two northern territories. The provinces have jurisdiction for: provincial constitutional amendments; direct taxation and debt raising for provincial purposes; provincial prisons; education; health care; municipal government; provincially (nearly all) incorporated companies; local works; property and civil rights; provincial justice, civil law and procedure; and enforcement of provincial laws.
They also hold sway in most labour and social security matters. The two northern territories do not have the status of provinces and are controlled and administered by the federal government, although elected territorial councils are being given increasing jurisdiction m some local matters. The Northwest Territories is to be divided into two, creating the new Nunavut Territory as a semi-autonomous region for the Inuit people.
Parliament is bicameral. Its executive functions are carried out by a Cabinet, whose members are usually chosen from the ruling party in the 295-seat House of Commons. General elections must be held at least every five years, but have traditionally been held at four year intervals. The upper house, the Senate, has less influence on the legislative process than the British House of Lords. The Senate (1 12 members) is appointed on a regional basis by the Prime Minister, in consultation with the Cabinet. Senators must retire from office at the age of 75. The Commons is dominated, in terms of number of seats, by the central provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and this has led to calls by western provinces in particular for a stronger, counterbalancing Senate.
Provincial governments are similarly structured, but with no upper houses. Municipal government operates under the wing of the provinces.
General amendments to the Constitution require the consent of the federal parliament and of seven provinces representing at least 50% of the population.

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From 1968 to 1984, politics were dominated by Pierre Trudeau, leader of the Liberal Party and four times Prime Minister. During his administrations, social welfare was increased, immigration liberalised and multiculturalism promoted. After his retirement from politics in 1984, his party was eventually ousted by the opposition Progressive Conservatives under Brian Mulroney. His government promoted more stringent social policies, some privatisation and free trade. By mid-1990, however, the economy was sliding into recession and Mulroney's popularity declined to an all-time low in 1992. He was succeeded in 1993 by Kim Campbell, Canada's first woman Prime Minister. Campbell and the Conservatives were crushingly defeated in the October 1993 elections, winning only two seats. The Liberal party, led by lean Chr6tien, won 178 seats. The right-wing Reform Party also did well in the elections (52 seats), as did the recently formed party, the Bloc Qu6b6gois, with 54 seats.
Canada's major political preoccupation is that of the possible secession of Quebec. Accommodating the different aspirations of French Canadians and English Canadians is challenging the survival of the Federation.
The Parti Québéçois (PQ) was founded in 1968 to promote separatism. It came to power in Quebec in 1976 and a referendum on Quebec sovereignty was held in 1980 in which 60% of Quebec voters rejected secession. A new constitution was enacted in 1982, with only the most minor adjustments but including a Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Quebec, however, did not approve the constitution.
A way forward was apparently found by the Meech Lake accord in 1987. Its mains points were the recognition of Quebec as a 'distinct society' and new provincial powers. This time, however, Manitoba and Newfoundland refused to ratify the accord before the June 1990 deadline and New Brunswick then halted its own ratification process. Many Quebeckers were antagonised by what they interpreted as a rejection of their interests, culture and language. Extensive public consultations on constitutional reform followed, culminating in the Charlottetown Accord of 28 August 1992. Among other things, this accord recognised Quebec as a distinct society and also recognised aboriginal right to self-government within Canada. However, the Charlottetown Accord proposals were rejected in a public referendum on 26 October 1992.
The focus of constitutional debate then shifted back to the relationship of Quebec with the Federation. Despite the clear practical difficulties of secession, the PQ, winning the provincial elections of 1994, held a referendum on the separatist option on 30 October 1995. The result was a narrow defeat for the secessionists: a majority of less than 1% voted for remaining within the Federation of Canada. Both the Canadian Prime Minister, Jean Chretien, and the Quebec Premier, Jacques Parizeau, were criticised by their supporters for their respective handling of the referendum and Parizeau resigned immediately. The Quebec question remains at the top of the country's political agenda. Parizeau's successor as Premier of the province, Lucien Bouchard, is continuing to pursue the goal of sovereignty.
Canada's native peoples are also continuing to press for recognition of a right to self-government. A semiautonomous homeland for the country's 17,500 Inuits, the Nunavut Territory, is to be created out of the existing Northwest Territories. Five other land claims by indigenous peoples have reached an advanced stage of negotiation. In British Columbia, a pioneering deal with the Nisga'a people, still to be ratified, will allow title to land, economic independence and self-government with a provincial framework. Hundreds of smaller claims have also been made.
Last elections: October 1993
Next elections: by October 1998
Head of State: HM Queen Elizabeth I I, represented by Governor-General HE The Hon Roméo Leblanc
Head of Government: The Prime Minister, the Rt Hon Jean Chrétien

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Sports: The official sport of Canada is lacrosse, usually played during the summer months and is the main sport played by the indigenous population.
The world's most popular sport, football, is enjoying increased popularity with schools under the North American term 'soccer'.
The main sport in winter is ice hockey. Curling and skiing are winter pastimes that enjoy reasonable popularity.

Canadian technology developed and supplied the robotic arms used on all NASA space shuttles.

Canadians (per capita), have more televisions and video tape recorders in their homes than USA residents.(Another piece of useless information ?)

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