Philosophy and Science in Ancient India

Contrary to the popular perception that Indian civilization has been largely concerned with the affairs of the spirit and "after-life", India's historical record suggests that some of the greatest Indian minds were much more concerned with developing philosophical paradigms that were grounded in reality. The premise that Indian philosophy is founded solely on mysticism and renunciation emanates from a colonial and orientalist world view that seeks to obfuscate a rich tradition of scientific thought and analysis in India.

Read more on the development of science and reason in Ancient India

(Essays by Shishir Thadani)

A brief introduction to Upanishadic philosophy, the rational schools of Nyaya Vaisheshika, and the atomic theories of the Jains and Buddhists:

An overview of Buddhist critiques of irrational rituals, supernatural beliefs and philosophical extremes; an elaboration of the ethical and moral underpinnings of Buddhism's philosophical paradigms:

Buddhist Ethics and Social Criticism

This essay looks at the progress of Indian mathematics from the Harappan period to the 17th century. While tracing the development of the Indian numeral system it acknowledges the salutary role played by Panini in the development of scientific notation in India. It also explores the role of philosophy and related disciplines such as astronomy in the advance of Indian mathematics.

History of Mathematics in India

This essay traces the development of the physical sciences such as Physics and Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, identifying both the strengths and weaknesses of the Indian approach to the physical sciences, especially the failure of later Indian scientists to engage in experimentation and quantification of scientific observations.

History of the Physical Sciences in India

A Brief History of Technology in India

An historical overview of technological inventions and the practical applications of technology in the subcontinent starting from the Harappan period. In particular, this analysis looks at how geographic and social conditions can have a bearing on the development and use of new technology in society.

Industrial Crafts, Manufacturing and Trade

A brief history of industrial crafts, manufacturing, metallurgy, shipping and trade in the Indian sub-continent:

(For an abstract/outline of the above article see Indian Crafts Abstract)

Adivasi Traditions and Indian Civilization

Adivasi traditions and practices pervade all aspects of Indian culture and civilization, yet this awareness is often lacking in the popular consciousness. This article explores the critical role of the tribal republics in shaping Buddhism, and how numerous Adivasi practices became woven into the broad range of Hindu customs and beliefs.

Adivasi contributions to Indian languages, arts and crafts as well as Ayurvedic medicine are also brought to attention. In particular, this essay highlights the heroic struggle of the Adivasis against the extreme depredations of British colonial rule.

History of Orissa

The history of Orissa makes an interesting case-study in that its history is in many ways atypical from that of the northern plains and many of the common generalizations that are made about Indian history do not seem to apply to the Oriya region.

Here is a brief survey of its eclectic philosophical traditions, vibrant trade connections, developments in metallurgy, irrigation, fine arts and crafts, social mobility and development of popular culture. Colonization and Orissa's struggle against British rule are also discussed.

Historiography of the Conquest of Sindh

A critical examination of official Pakistani histories concerning the invasion of Sindh by the Bin Qasim militias and the subsequent impact on the development of civilization and culture in Sindh.

Impact of Islam

An assessment of the impact of Islamic rule in India - the effects on trade, manufacturing, urbanization, political structures and society:

Mughal Rule in India

This critical appraisal of Mughal rule in India examines the context in which the Mughal victories took place, outlining how a combination of military strength and strategic alliances with regional rulers enabled Mughal rulers to expand and cement their rule. This essay also points to the role of Sher Shah Suri in developing the Grand Trunk Road and the creation of new manufacturing towns in the Gangetic plain and how Akbar built on this foundation to facilitate the expansion of trade activities in the Northern plains.

This analysis also attempts to look at some of the factors that led to the disintegration of the Mughal empire - such as the alienation of the peasantry, and the disaffection of outlying regions.

The British East India Company

"In the middle of the seventeenth century, Asia still had a far more important place in the world than Europe." So wrote J. Pirenne in his 'History of the Universe', published in Paris in 1950. He added, "The riches of Asia were incomparably greater than those of the European states. Her industrial techniques showed a subtlety and a tradition that the European handicrafts did not possess. And there was nothing in the more modern methods used by the traders of the Western countries that Asian trade had to envy. In matters of credit, transfer of funds, insurance, and cartels, neither India, Persia, nor China had anything to learn from Europe."

Colonial rule, however, was to bring about a dramatic change in the relative positions of the nations of Asia vis-a-vis Europe. The East India companies played a crucial role in the subjugation of the Asian world, and the eventual colonization of almost all non-European nations.

This article traces the transformation of the British East India Company from a trading company to a colonizing power:

1857

Although dismissed by some as merely a sepoy's revolt, or as a protest against the violation of religious rights by the British, the great uprising of 1857 is slowly gaining recognition as India's first war of independence. In its broad sweep it was the greatest armed challenge to colonial rule during the entire course of the nineteenth century. Attracting people from all walks of life - both Hindus and Muslims, it triggered demands for radical social and economic reforms, calling for a new society that would be more democratic and more representative of popular demands:

The Colonial Legacy

Literacy in British India in 1911 was only 6%, in 1931 it was 8%, and by 1947 it had crawled to 11%. The 1931 census revealed 74 per cent of Bombay's population lived in one-room tenements - with one-third living more than 5 to a room. After the Second World War, 13 per cent of Bombay's population slept on the streets. 10-15 tenements typically shared one water tap. Life expectancy in India had fallen to 23 in 1931! In the 50 years prior to independence, the Indian economy experienced zero growth.

As has been noted by several historians of British-ruled India, the numerical presence of the British in colonized India was never very significant. Yet, the British were able to maintain a vast and stable empire in the Indian subcontinent for almost two centuries.

This multi-part essay elaborates on how the were British were able to garner the loyalty or acquiescence of the Indian Maharajas, the decadent feudal aristocracy, landlords, money lenders and sections of the new urban elite, and how such loyalist forces retarded the progress towards freedom.

India's Freedom Struggle

"Nadir Shah looted the country only once. But the British loot us every day. Every year wealth to the tune of 4.5 million dollar is being drained out, sucking our very blood. Britain should immediately quit India.'' That's what the Sindh Times wrote on May 20, 1884, a year before the Indian National Congress was born and 58 years before the ''Quit India'' movement of 1942 was launched.

Contrary to the view that nationalist sentiments were awoken by the Indian National Congress only when M.K. Gandhi took over its leadership, nationalist feelings in India had been present as early as 1857, and expressions of Indian nationalism manifested themselves in various forms all through the course of British rule.

Key Landmarks in the Indian Freedom Struggle

Partition

Questioning the theoretical foundations of the 2-nation theory, this article offers historical evidence to suggest that the partition of the sub-continent was primarily the result of colonial chicanery and the violent sectarianism of the Muslim League.

The article concludes: In hindsight, it is clear that partition was largely a colonial trick. The Muslim League had never proved its strength in any truly democratic vote. The British knew that the Congress was under great pressure to gain independence quickly. They exploited the mood of impatience and weariness in the Congress to accept partition even when it wasn't what the masses of the Indian sub-continent had really wished for.

Gandhi - A critical appraisal

Gandhi's legacy has often been presented as something larger than life. This essay offers a more critical perspective on his ideas, philosophy and role in the Indian Freedom Movement.

Caste and Gender equations in Indian history

Perhaps no aspect of India's history has excited greater fascination for Western indologists and educators than India's caste system and the practice of Sati. In the last few millenia, few civilized societies have been free from social inequities - but social relations in India have acquired a peculiar notoriety.

Colonial (and neo-colonial) constructs of Indian history continue to treat India's caste system as though it were a constant and essential aspect of Indian history. There have been very few attempts at comparative analysis, and only a few social scientists have explored how economic and political factors may have impinged on the caste system. The relationship between the caste system and modes of production has also received inadequate attention.

A particularly important aspect missing in many contemporary treatments of the subject is the role of social upheavals and ideological struggles in ameliorating or modifying caste equations - something that has, in fact, happened throughout Indian history. Islamic invasions and conquests also had an impact, as did colonization, whose effects were particularly deleterious.

This analysis attempts to rescue this delicate but important subject from the hasty generalizations and rash polemics that have impaired serious and conscientious study of this difficult and sometimes thorny aspect of Indian history:

History of Social Relations in India

Indian Art and Architecture

This perspective on Indian art and architecture challenges the stereotypic notions about Indian art and architecture being largely confined to the religious space. India's rich legacy in the arts and architecture includes much that is secular and universalistic in its appeal.

This essay explores the philosophical underpinnings of Indian sculpture and temple decoration, and also examines the aesthetic principles that give the Indian miniature its particular character, highlighting the vital role that folk traditions have played in shaping India's aesthetical ideals.

Developments in Indian Art and Architecture

(For an abstract/outline of the above article see Indian Art Abstract)

For Hindi Translation of some of our essays, see
BHARAT KA ITIHAAS

Although most of our selections focus primarily on the Indian experience, there are many aspects of Indian history that also reflect the history of its South Asian neighbours. In the ancient world, social and political borders were neither fixed nor did they always tally with present national divisions. For instance, during much of India's Buddhist period (and also during the Gupta period), Afghanistan was politically and culturally affiliated with Northern India. This was also true during the Islamic period, when Afghanistan and Northern India both came under the rule of the Lodhis and the Mughals.

Trade and cultural links between India and its neighbours like Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma) and Sri Lanka were usually quite extensive, even extending to Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia and Vietnam in the East, and Persia, Central Asia, the Arab world and coastal E. Africa in the West. With Nepal, cultural and political contacts were especially extensive.

Moreover, developments in philosophy, science, technology and manufacturing often encompassed many regions of the sub-continent and were transmitted fairly widely as time progressed. Thus, in its broad contours the history of India is as much the history of the entire sub-continent and vice-versa.

As our essay on Indian Languages amply demonstrates, many Asian languages share a common structure when it comes to oganization of their script that is not very well known.

We may also note that the process of colonization had a dramatic impact on most nations of the world - whether in Asia, Africa or Latin America. Although the intensity of exploitation may have varied from one colonized nation to another, and there may have been differences in detail with respect to concrete practice - there were many commonalities in the way most nations were colonized.

To that extent, these pages from the history of the Indian sub-continent may also enlighten readers from other parts of Asia or Africa, or anyone else interested in broadening their view of world history.

Please see the topics index for a list of articles and links that have a pan-Asian or broad relevance.

Also visit our sister-site, SOUTH ASIAN VOICE - featuring news analysis, critical perspectives on current affairs, and commentaries on public policies in India and the South Asian region.

For a visual glimpse of India's historic legacy, its art and architecture - visit IMAGE INDIA 

Also see INDIAN ARTS and INDIA-RESOURCE for other links to India (or South Asia) related sites.

South Asian History is edited and maintained by Shishir Thadani

Last update: Aug 15, 2011