October 2004 Edition

News analysis and analytical perspectives from India and the sub-continent

Higher Education in India

Some Notes

Numerous news stories and recently published statistical data have shown a growing divide in the nation in terms of economic growth and progress. Whereas the four Southern States are witnessing something of an economic boom in their major metros, the states of Eastern India - particularly Bihar, Jharkhand and Assam are experiencing minimal growth.

As already noted in other essays on this site, this trend can be partly attributed to the policies of economic liberalization and the retreat of the Indian Government from its earlier attempts at planned and balanced growth. By and large, since independence, India's poorest states have attracted little private investment. Consequently, whatever little development has taken place has been due to central intervention, although even this has not been adequate. For instance, in per capita terms, Jharkhand and Bihar have received only a small fraction of the grants and subsidies that Punjab has received. This already inequitable situation has now been further aggravated, because since 1991, the Centre has been relatively disinclined to engage in any significant new investments.

However, the recent retreat of the centre (and prior neglect) may not be solely to blame for the inability of these states to develop. Certain historical, cultural and socio-political factors may also be at play that may be contributing to the problems of the poorest states. (For instance, some of the poorest regions of the subcontinent were also the ones that experienced the horrors of colonization for a longer period of time).

Geographic and situational factors can also be important - as in Assam (and the North East) - where partition artificially destroyed centuries-old linkages the region had with Bangladesh, and since Assam is linked to the rest of India by a rather narrow strip of land, it has been harder for the economy of Assam (and the North East) to be fully integrated with the rest of the Indian economy.

Moreover, during colonial rule, funding for education in states such as Jharkhand and Bihar was abysmal, and that might (in part) explain the pitiful state of the infrastructure in many Indian universities. But poor administration and the abysmal quality of the staff that maintains most public buildings is at least as much to blame. Public Works Departments (PWDs) who are responsible for the construction and maintenance of government buildings in India must surely rank amongst the worst in the world. Thoughtlessly planned, shabbily constructed, and poorly maintained - public buildings in India are perhaps the dowdiest in the world. They are reflective of the attitudes of a bureaucracy and government that seem little concerned with public convenience or aesthetics. Older government-run universities suffer as a consequence.

Yet, what is astounding is how, in spite of the sorry physical conditions that many Indian colleges present, Indian students have managed to get an educational grounding that allows the best of them to rank very favorably with students from countries that are much richer.

Nevertheless, it is important to note - that with the retreat of the Central Government from initiating new investments, the policies of State Governments and the initiatives of other social and economic forces have become much more significant as determinants of how a particular state might adapt to present circumstances.

For instance, the following table reveals an interesting co-factor in the economic progress of a state in the present "liberalized" environment:

Notes: Data is from state government websites, various on-line databases - such as the UGC list of colleges, or other educational portals. In most cases, at least two independent sources have been used to cross-check the data.

* Most of the Engineering Colleges in UP and MP are in the Western regions of these two states. In UP, they are mostly concentrated around Agra, Ghaziabad and Lucknow, while in MP, most are located in the Gwalior, Bhopal, Indore and Jabalpur quadrangle.

** A significant proportion of Engineering Colleges in the Southern States are Private Colleges. Since between 5-10% of all Private Colleges get denotified, and since the performance of about 25% of Private Colleges in Tamil Nadu is extremely poor, data from these Southern States should be discounted somewhat. However, this problem also affects many of the new private colleges in AP, UP, MP and Rajasthan  as well.

**** Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal hav several more colleges that only offer computer-related courses, but not other engineering programs. These have not been included in the list. Numbers have also been accordingly reduced for other states such as MP.

While it is fairly well-known that states such as Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have below average social indicators and much work needs to be done in terms of basic literacy and primary health care, what is less known is how the recent success of the four southern states in attracting high-technology investment to their shores has much to do with their significantly higher pool of qualified computer science and engineering graduates compared to other Indian states.

Although there has been a dramatic growth in basic degree colleges almost throughout the country, in states like Bihar, a miniscule proportion of the new colleges are oriented towards engineering. On the other hand, Andhra Pradesh has managed to literally double its engineering base in five years, and has pulled ahead of traditionally more prosperous and more industrialized states such Gujarat and Maharashtra. Recently, Madhya Pradesh has also witnessed explosive growth in the launch of new engineering colleges (although most are located in the Bhopal region). While the Pune region in Maharashtra is witnessing as explosive growth as the Southern growth centers (as is Kolkata in Bengal), it is the significantly higher concentration of science and engineering graduates in Southern India that has attracted the world's leading technological companies to set up software development centers in Bangalore, Chennai and Hyderabad.

What is especially noteworthy is the steady narrowing of the gender gap - with a growing number of young women graduating with science and engineering degrees and taking up teaching and research positions - not only in the pure sciences, bio-technology, or computer technology, but also in fields such as civil and mechanical engineering.

It may be worth underlining, that an engineering (or physical science) degree can be a great equalizer in terms of canceling out caste or other disadvantages. Whereas nepotism, favoritism, and ideological (or sectarian religious) distortions can be the bane of many social science and humanities programs in India, there is a considerably lesser degree of subjectivity in science and engineering programs. As a result, caste or other social connections (or impediments) can matter less. In a competitive environment, engineering and technology companies must (out of sheer practical necessity) rise above caste, gender, religious or other prejudices and hire based on merit, qualifications and experience.

For the rest of India to compete with the Southern States, it is imperative that the other states make a conscious effort to broaden their educational horizons. It may be noted that Punjab took active steps in this direction. A decade ago, there was a severe shortage of engineering colleges in Punjab, and many young Punjabis were forced to seek admission in private colleges in Karnataka and elsewhere. However, the gap has now been considerably narrowed, and the Chandigarh region has also become a draw for technology-related investment.

Elsewhere in India, for some of the non-metros to begin attracting technology-related investment in any reasonable proportion, the engineering colleges in the smaller towns will have to be systematically upgraded so that they not only turn out students who can take up basic programming jobs, but can also deal with more challenging research and development assignments.

This is not to say that the Southern States have no worries. As recent election results have shown, a boom in Software jobs alone cannot solve the problems of the majority of the people of the state. Although the Southern States are experiencing fairly rapid growth in some respects, the growth has been lopsided, and created new problems in its wake. The booming metros of the South are all experiencing serious transportation bottlenecks. In addition, both power and water supply are often unreliable. Air quality has also been declining.

The enormous growth in basic engineering colleges (such as in Andhra) has not been accompanied by a concomitant growth in areas such as urban planning, environmental and transportation studies, water and energy management, waste disposal and effective sanitation, urban aesthetics and culture, and other related studies that might be relevant from a sociological point of view.

It might also be noted that although it is gratifying to see how several districts in the South now offer a fairly widely distributed network of Engineering Colleges, very few of the new colleges offer post-graduate programs, and even fewer offer serious research opportunities. In Andhra Pradesh, for instance, basic engineering colleges have grown much faster than colleges geared towards higher learning in the sciences and engineering. As a result, the PhD base remains restricted to a few key university towns. This is also one reason why the leading multinationals continue to prefer the major metros in spite of all the problems that might entail.

Another point of concern is that many of the newer engineering colleges have come up in the Private Sector, where fees are much higher - thus dissuading lower income students from accepting admission in these colleges. For instance, just recently in UP, only 70% of seats in Private Colleges were accepted by qualified applicants.

Quality at the Private Engineering Colleges is also very mixed. Going by Anna University's exam records, the quality of many of the new private Engineering Colleges in Tamil Nadu appears to be quite inadequate. While the best are run very professionally and offer Post-Graduate degrees and provide opportunities for research and exposure to national and international seminars and conferences, others clearly do not deserve their accreditation. A significant proportion would require considerable remedial work to warrant their continued existence.

It should be noted that the GATE data cited above does not include Colleges that register fewer than 50 students for the exams. This tends to somewhat distort the picture for states like Tamil Nadu where smaller private engineering colleges dominate the landscape. In addition, a state like Tamil Nadu provides some relatively high quality local engineering colleges that provide facilities for advanced studies and research, thus reducing the need for students to appear for GATE.

Going by the GATE tests (used by the IITs and the IISc) to screen candidates for graduate admission, the colleges with more consistent and rigorous academic standards are typically government-run or government-assisted. Here, it is a state like Uttaranchal that shines, and states like Chhatisgarh and West Bengal do better than average.

However, critics might caution that tests such as GATE cannot guarantee that students with an academic grasp of their field will necessarily make the best engineers or the best researchers in the long run. Often good engineering or scientific research requires curiosity, creativity, and perseverance. While it is important for academicians to have a fairly comprehensive knowledge of their subject (and to be able to provide correct answers right off the top of their heads), such abilities are not always necessary in other situations. For non-academics, it is usually sufficient that they have a firm grounding in the concepts, and can ascertain the details of any problem by referring to the appropriate sources. As a nation, India should be providing graduate study facilities not just to the toppers in exams such as GATE, but to all keen students who may in fact have a deeper and more genuine interest in their fields than others who have simply learnt how to do well in tests.

In any case, engineering studies ought not to be seen as a substitute for advanced studies in the pure or applied sciences. Fundamental research in Biology, Physics and Chemistry (and allied fields) as well as environmental studies can play a vital role in complementing and strengthening the technological prowess of a nation. Indian scientists have done a remarkable job of plowing on with fundamental and applied research in spite of the general paucity of funds and limited facilities. While in most cases, states with larger number of engineering colleges also provide a stronger infrastructure in terms of teaching and research in the pure and applied sciences, this is not always the case. Whereas in Tamil Nadu, the higher number of engineering colleges is matched by relatively strong university science departments, in Bengal, there are far fewer engineering colleges, but there are nevertheless good opportunities for fundamental research in Physics and other sciences, especially in the Kharagpur-Kolkata region.

In fact, research papers of international standard are being produced not only at the IITs (or at the universities of the major metros), but also in the regional metros, and at smaller university towns. Even more significant is the contribution from researchers at P.G. (Post Graduate) Colleges in non-university towns. (See Notes below)

However, as things stand, India's per-capita research output is probably still a fraction of what is standard in the US, Canada, Europe or Japan. Moreover, conversion to industrial technologies is appreciably lower. This is in part due to the significant brain drain that has occurred in the last two decades. (By some estimates, 20-25% of India's researchers are making contributions abroad). Although in fields such as Computer Science, India has made very rapid strides, in areas such as Physics, the smaller Indian University might have only 5-10 Physics PhDs (not including affiliated colleges), whereas the typical range for most American Universities would be 30-80 Physics PhDs (and a correspondingly higher number of research fellows). Physics Departments at some European Universities (such as in Munich) can be even larger, with PhD strength exceeding a 100.

This is not to say that there aren't Indian Universities that have a comparable number of researchers. Most A-rated (or better) Indian Universities seem to have a comparable number of Science PhDs (when affiliated colleges are included in the count). However, it should be noted that not all PhD faculty may be involved in Research (especially at the lower-ranking affiliated colleges). In addition, it seems that Chemistry departments are typically stronger than Physics departments.

For instance, while PhD strength in Physics and Chemistry at Delhi University is extremely impressive (when PhD staff at the affiliated colleges is included in the count) and exceeds 200 (for each), the number would be much smaller for most state universities.

An imbalance also shows up in certain cutting-edge engineering fields, where the gap between Indian Engineering Colleges and Western Universities can be quite significant. Few Indian Universities have adequate PhD staff relating to cutting-edge engineering or advanced Urban Planning. PhD strength at the majority of Indian engineering and architecture departments is woefully inadequate - especially in newer fields such as those relating to advanced electronics, new materials, and advanced building and industrial techniques. Corporate initiatives in advanced industrial research have also been markedly inadequate (except, perhaps, in a few key industries such textiles, chemicals and pharmaceuticals).

It must also be noted that the US (as does Europe) typically has many more universities than India. Whereas in India, on the average, there is a university (or research center) for every 4 million, in the US, there is a major university (or advanced research center) for every 2 million (or less). While it may well be true that not all research emanating out of US universities is useful, and that teaching is neglected at many US universities, (or even that science education at many US High Schools may be well below the standards set by India's Higher Secondary Boards), these numbers are nevertheless illustrative of the distance India must travel before it can achieve parity with the advanced universities of the world.

One of the most disconcerting aspects of Indian research is how it has not grown in proportion to the growth of India's population and GDP. For instance, in the decade between 1980 and 1990 (the pre-liberalization decade) Indian researchers in the field of Physics were publishing papers in international journals at a rate that was almost three times that of China. Since then, between 1991 and 2004, Chinese researchers have increased their contribution almost 6 times, whereas the Indian contribution has not grown in proportion. This in part can be explained by greater opportunities to publish at home, or to present at national seminars. However, it must also be noted that whereas the Chinese government has taken a more pro-active role in setting up cutting-edge research institutions and encouraging advanced research, Indian governments have been starving India's universities and research labs for funds.

In fact, the most significant problem with college-level Science Education in India is that too many Government (or Private) Colleges in the very small towns have simply not staffed their Physics and Chemistry departments (or don't even offer Science courses). So students at the undergraduate level (especially in district units where there is a larger proportion of SC/ST students) are not able to graduate in the science streams. The situation with Physics teaching is especially problematic. This then leads to a corresponding shortage of science teachers in the local schools. This is a serious limiting factor in the development of Indian Science and Technology.

It is perhaps, one of the most shocking by-products of "liberalization".

In recent decades, both government and industry have displayed a lackadaisical attitude towards higher education. Although the intellectual quotient at several of India's universities ranks with the world's very best, basic facilities at many Indian Universities lag far behind what might be typical at other Asian or Latin American universities. Whether in terms of internet facilities, or quality of construction and maintenance of campus-buildings, the average Indian university (especially in states such as UP or Bihar) would be put to shame by its counterparts not only in energy-rich developing countries such as Iran or Malaysia, but also in Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Thailand and China. In Thailand and Malaysia, there has been a concerted effort at raising academic standards in the applied sciences departments.

Nevertheless, there are some inspiring examples of progress in the right direction. Several states have been taking remedial steps in increasing opportunities for technical education. In Tamil Nadu, there has been remarkable progress in improving the depth and range of engineering faculties. In cities like Coimbatore and Madurai, there appears to be a concerted effort on the part of younger faculty members to get PhDs and engage very actively in research and development.

Other states need to emulate such examples, and the centre must step in to fill in gaps in funding. While funding (and advanced test equipment) is almost always a problem at most Indian universities, there has also been a serious problem with university administrators who have dragged their feet in filling key positions. Also, not all faculty members take the leadership in encouraging or supporting new research, or in disseminating good research. There is excessive duplication of projects, and often, a lack of synergy, and productive interaction between active researchers. The use of the Internet is also not as widespread as it should be - many universities have not even bothered to set up good websites for their teaching and research departments. Stipends for needy graduate students are minimal, and opportunities for research are not commensurate with the potential. University funding in India as a percentage of GDP would compare quite poorly (not only with China) but also with a developing country such as Cuba (where education has been accorded a very high priority).

However, there are also deeper political and cultural roadblocks to retaining and effectively harnessing India's intellectual talent. Since independence (with a few notable exceptions), India's political landscape has been dominated by trends that have not fully grasped the potential of science and technology in improving peoples lives. On the one hand there have been conservative clerical trends that have little interest in secular progress, on the other there are obscurantist trends that prefer to indulge in grandiose myth-making as opposed to making concrete improvements in India's scientific and technological base. Among "secular" currents, there is the long shadow of Gandhi and Mao - neither of whom had any deep perspective on how to effectively advance scientific learning and utilize the fruits of modern technology.

In addition, narrow-minded and ill-informed economists have had excessive influence on policy-making in recent years. In their myopic liberalism, they have called for rapid privatization and ultra-liberal government policies. But whereas concessions to industry might in some cases bring about short-term gains, long-term economic growth can only be backed up by a strong academic infrastructure that is widely accessible and effectively utilized by domestic industry. For instance, if one looks at the recent patents filed in India, a majority of Indian patents are held by the multinational giants. Amongst Indian patent filers, it is the government-run CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research) who holds an overwhelming lead.

The credit for founding the CSIR labs goes to the Nehruvian wing of the Congress - which was the only political force that appreciated the value of higher education and fundamental research. If today, India retains any element of sovereignty and autonomy in the technological arena, it is due to the relatively further-sighted vision of Motilal Nehru and his progeny.

Unfortunately, the political liberalism that has been the hallmark of the Nehru Congress provides few answers on how to combat a brain drain. As a result, young Indian graduates continue to flock abroad, leaving India with a sizeable intellectual loss. (For instance, two-thirds of all graduates at the IIAP (Indian Instt. of Astrophysics), Bangalore are now in the West. This pattern is repeated to varying degrees at other institutions of higher learning)

Few amongst India's politicians and industrialists seem to be too concerned about this unhappy situation. This is not surprising considering that the Indian masses have been kept distracted by a media industry that romanticizes young men who can hit a ball or wiggle their torsos to bawdy music. But in spite of the growing cultural decadence that threatens to drown Indian society, there remains a dedicated pool of Indian educators and researchers who are deserving of much greater support and appreciation - especially in terms of funding.

Ideally, in former colonies like India, the funding gap ought to be bridged by international agencies such UNESCO. Just a 5% cut in the US military budget and its allocation to basic and higher education in the developing world could yield amazing results. A mere 5% allocation from the Emirs of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar or Saudi Arabia could likewise have a significant impact. But such enlightened gestures are unlikely from the world's imperialist powers and their parasitic appendages.

A somewhat likelier option would be for the more developed energy-deficient nations such as Germany, Austria, Belgium, Japan, S. Korea and others to set up a fund for advanced studies (especially relating to energy and global-warming studies) that could be made available to qualified Indian (and other) intellectuals for cutting-edge research that could complement and supplement the work being done in the West.

However India cannot afford to wait for such farsightedness from other countries.

For India to graduate from being a nation of software coolies to an advanced industrial and technological nation (like Germany, Japan or Korea) - much work is still required. Not only in improving educational standards across the board, but also in terms of upgrading the capabilities of high schools and the hundreds of colleges scattered across India's smaller towns, and ensuring that affordability is not a concern. There needs to be a significant change of mindset so that there is a healthy interaction between the research community and those who are responsible for implementing public policy.

So far there has been inadequate interest on the part of government and industry in putting cutting-edge research to the best use. This must change, and strong leadership from University Vice Chancellors and Professors could also make a difference. In addition, it should be noted that many of India's government research labs are involved in improving older technologies rather than engaging in cutting-edge research and developing brand new technologies. This too must change.

In addition, the hard separation between teaching staff at universities and scientists at regional research labs needs to be ended. Scientists can sometimes become jaded, and lose interest in cutting edge research. Such scientists need to be given opportunities to take up teaching positions, or university administrative positions. Conversely, university teaching staff ought to have greater opportunities to conduct research and interact with scientists at government labs. It might also be beneficial for all government labs to have a teaching component so that advanced scientists can guide motivated science graduates towards PhDs. Isolation is the bane of any scientist, and interaction with motivated youth can be important in maintaining scientific creativity. At most Western Universities, research is propelled as much by the contributions of young graduate students as by their more senior faculty advisors.

In addition, the government needs to do much more in linking up Science and Engineering Researchers so that they can be in constant touch and be more aware of the research that is going on at Universities, Government PG Colleges, Research Labs and at Private Institutions. Not enough Science and Departments have high-speed Internent Access. In addition, there doesn't appear to be adequate coordination between States and the Centre resulting in needless duplication of research and developmental effort.

Another aspect that needs special emphasis is modern architecture and facilities and town planning, where India seems to be especially weak (even when compared to other developing nations). Although some of India's newer college campuses (particularly in Hyderabad, Bangalore or Chennai, can boast of fairly good facilities), University campuses (and urban areas in general) in South America or in the ASEAN countries appear to be relatively better planned, and boast vastly superior architecture. China's architects and urban planners also seem to have learnt form the world's best.

It is up to India's political, industrial and academic leaders to take the initiative, so that India's educational infrastructure can be enhanced to advanced international levels. Not just in terms of producing "IT graduates", (or skilled undergraduates for export to the West), but in terms of producing and retaining technologists and scholars that cover the entire gamut of human knowledge and civilization. The people of Indian should be content with nothing less.

Of course, there are also lessons for India's neighbors. Clerical-oriented forces in the subcontinent must learn that a religious education is no substitute for a secular education in the modern world. Every technologically advanced nation has made a conscious effort to keep clerical influences at some distance from their educational programs. Faith may provide psychological succor to individuals at various points in their lives, but it cannot be a substitute for reason - it cannot be a substitute for knowledge and scientific understanding.

Certainly there can be important moral and ethical questions concerning how scientific knowledge and ability ought to be harnessed by a civilized society. A civilized society will utilize the benefits of science in a just and humanitarian way - for the general well-being of society, whereas an uncivilized society might use scientific and technological know-how to destroy and oppress others. That is a separate struggle that has to be waged constantly.

But regardless of ones religious or ideological orientation, there is an important place for scientific awareness and technological maturity in every society. Societies who fail to understand this can only do so at their own peril.

Notes:

(A survey of research papers in Physics and Chemistry from the major Indian Journals of Science in 2004 indicates that apart from the metros, there are active researchers at a broad range of Indian towns including Jammu and Srinagar (J&K), Shimla and Hamirpur (HP), Dehradun, Pantnagar, Srinagar (Garhwal), Haridwar, Kotdwara, Uttarkashi, Haldwani (Uttaranchal), Amritsar, Patiala, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Sangrur (Punjab), Hissar, Kurukshetra, Rohtak, Sirsa, Faridabad, Dhauj, Yamuna Nagar (Haryana), Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Ajmer, Pilani, Banasthali, Alwar, Bharatpur, Kota, Tonk, Sri Ganganagar, Sawai Madhopur, Bhilwara, Beawar, Bikaner, Sikar, Dausa, Banswara (Rajasthan), Varanasi, Agra, Allahabad, Aligarh, Meerut, Jhansi, Gorakhpur, Faizabad, Jaunpur, Moradabad, Bareilly, Mathura, Firozabad, Modinagar, Muzaffarnagar, Saharanpur, Balrampur, Sahibabad (Ghaziabad), Raebareli, Chandauli, Pilibhit, Azamgarh, Baghpat, Baraut, Chhibramau (Kannauj), Hathras, Bhadohi, Najibabad, Shikohabad, Rampur, Unnao (UP), Madhepura, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Bhagalpur, Patna, Ara, Bodh Gaya, Hazaribagh, Samastipur, Bettiah, Purnea, Chhapra, Nalanda, Biharsharif, Motihari, Katihar (Bihar), Ranchi, Sindri, Dhanbad, Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Guwahati, Dibrugarh, Tezpur, Silchar, Jorhat, Bongaigaon, Basugaon (Kokrajhar), Karimganj, Duliajan (Assam), Itanagar (Arunachal), Shillong (Meghalaya) Agartala, Belonia ( Tripura), Imphal (Manipur), Aizwal (Mizoram), Burdwan, Midnapur, Darjeeling, Shantiniketan, Kalyani, Durgapur, Bishnupur, Bankura, Krishnanagar, Ranigunj,  Behrampur (Murshidabad), Malda, Hooghly, Raiganj, Kalna (Bengal), Bhubaneswar, Berhampur, Sambalpur, Rourkela, Cuttack, Puri, Balasore, Bhadrak, Baripada, Phulbani. Nuapada, Chatrapur (Orissa) Bilaspur, Raipur, Durg, Rajnandgaon, Ambikapur (Chattisgarh), Bhopal, Indore, Gwalior, Rewa, Ujjain, Sagar, Jabalpur, Khandwa, Satna, Vidisha, Rajgarh, Chhindwara, Tikamgarh, Sheopur, Betul, Hoshangabad, Sidhi, Morena (MP), Nagpur, Aurangabad, Jalgaon, Nanded, Kolhapur, Amravati, Solapur, Malegaon, Akola, Bhusaval, Karad, Hingoli, Karanje, Nandurbar, Washim, Badnera, Ramtek, Ahmednagar, Chikaldhara, Shegaon, Chikli, Buldhana, Parbhani, Phaltan, Khamgaon, Pen-Raigad, Nashik, Thane, Udgir (Latur), Purna, Bhandara, Yavatmal, Dhule (Maharashtra), Dharwad, Mangalore, Mysore, Gulbarga, Shimoga, Belgaum, Manipal, Tumkur, Hassan, Mandya (Karnataka), Vishakhapatnam, Anantapur, Warangal, Tirupati, Guntur, Vijayawada, Bapatla, Kazipet, Kurnool, Peddapuram (Kakinada), Kavali, Nuzvid, Mylavaram (Andhra Pradesh), Coimbatore, Madurai, Tiruchirapalli, Chidambaram, Tirunelveli, Karaikudi, Sivakasi, Kalpakkam, Salem, Virudhunagar, Pollachi, Nagarcoil, Tuticorin, Vellore, Dindigul, Erode, Srivilliputtur, Tiruchendur, Udhagamandalam, Adirampattinam, Vaniyambadi, Thanjavur, Kanchipuram, Kattankulathur (Tamil Nadu), Calicut, Kottayam, Kollam, Tiruvalla, Payyanur (Kerala), Rajkot, Vadodara, Anand, Bhavnagar, Surat, Gandhinagar, Patan, Mehsana, Dahod, Himatnagar, Kalol, Valsad, Vapi, Modasa (Gujarat), Goa, Pondicherry and Sikkim.)

A search on papers in Geology, Mathematics or Biological Sciences would in all likelihood expand this list further. (On the other hand, it may also be worth pointing out that research papers in engineering are relatively far fewer.)

It might also be noted that Indian Journals of Science don't just attract contributions from Indian researchers, or from other developing countries, but also from US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, UK, Europe, Korea, Singapore and Japan. Although the bulk of international contributions come from China, Iran, Turkey, Malaysia, Egypt, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Palestine, Morocco and Mauritius, there are also contributions from Tunisia, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Botswana, Namibia, Brazil and Chile, as well as from Yugoslavia, Lithuania, Spain, Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Russia, Italy, Denmark and Israel.

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