All of the foregoing are undergirded by strong parental commitment to
and sustained support for the education of the child during the entire
time he or she is in school. Education is reinforced at every turn by the
historical and cultural heritage, community consensus, government policy,
and the needs and employment practices of business, industry, and
government.
Japanese education has produced multiple benefits for the nation as
well as for its individual students. These benefits include a
well-educated citizenry, which strengthens national democracy; an
adaptable work force capable of high productivity in a competitive world
economy; the opportunity for individual social and economic mobility; and
an improved general quality of life.
Despite these achievements, the system is not perfect. The Japanese
know better than most foreign observers that there are significant costs
as well as benefits associated with the choices they have made and the
results achieved. Some difficulties appear before the end of elementary
school and are compounded in secondary education. Higher education is in
many respects the weakest part of the entire system even though,
paradoxically, it continues to exert a commanding influence on the
elementary and secondary levels that feed it. The problems are widely
acknowledged in Japan and are currently the subject of concerned scrutiny
in and out of government.
In trying to understand how the Japanese accomplish what they do in
education, how and why the system works, and some of its dynamics, one
finds that more than the school system is involved. The home environment
for the student, home-school relation, unofficial education programs
outside the school (particularly the juku), the relationship
between industry and education, especially at the postsecondary level--all
have to be taken into account along with history and culture.
For Westerners, Japanese education is fascinating and complex. Its
achievements appear to be as much a product of the nation's unique
historical and cultural foundations and parental commitment as of
pedagogical policies and practices. Indeed, several specific factors that
contribute to educational achievement may not be readily exportable, so
tied are they to the Japanese context.
While this report devotes some attention to problems and to the current
reform movement that aims to solve them, it focuses primarily on
understanding Japanese education--formal and informal--in its cultural
context. The goal is to present enough information in sufficient
perspective that Japanese education can speak for itself. Japanese terms
are introduced where useful, and a glossary is included.
The report also sketches--primarily in Secretary
Bennett's epilogue--some possible implications, for improving American
education. These points are not prescriptive. They are intended to
stimulate the reader to examine the doctrines, values, performance, and
potential of American education in a light refracted through the prism of
Japanese experience. In the United States, it is up to those directly
responsible for education--state, local and private authorities and
individual citizens--to draw their own conclusions about the relevance of
Japanese experience to their own situations.
The Context
In Japan, as in most countries, education is best understood in its
historical and cultural context. Indeed, sometimes education cannot be
meaningfully separated from its social foundations. This is particularly
true for Japan, both because much of the nation's history and culture is
not widely known in the United States and Western Europe and because
enduring cultural values strongly affect so much of contemporary Japanese
education. While justice cannot be done to Japanese education's rich
historical and cultural background in brief summary, some basic context is
essential for understanding Japanese education today.
Historical Background
Not all of Japanese education is homegrown. Japan is unusual in its
long record of interest and initiative in learning from other countries.
Most modern nations, including the United States, have been the
beneficiaries of education ideas from other countries, but Japan has been
more active in deliberately seeking ideas from abroad to help solve its
education problems as it perceives them and less self-conscious in
adapting those which seem useful.
While contemporary Japanese education has been widely praised,
especially because of outstanding results demonstrated in international
comparative studies of school achievement in science and mathematics, it
is not well known that Japan's record of distinction in education has
roots that go back over a hundred years. Indeed, in some important
respects education in Japan today is heir to a legacy of ideas whose
origins long predate the century of modern Japanese history.
Premodern times
Chinese civilization was particularly influential in the formation of
Japan's culture, and Chinese philosophical and literary influences have
remained strong throughout Japanese history. Along with Buddhism, which
came to Japan in the sixth century A.D., came the Chinese system of
writing and its literary tradition. So, too, came Confucianism, its
respect for learning, the Confucian classics, and its philosophical
traditions. Among other things, the Confucian heritage emphasized
respectful and benevolent hierarchical relationships, harmonious social
relations, and morality. Chinese ideas and systems were modified to suit
Japanese circumstances and ideals, and were interwoven with Japanese
philosophical and literary traditions.
As the European nations began to expand their empires to Asia, Japan
experienced an intense period of contact with the Western world from 1540
to 1640. Japan's traditional focus on the Asian continent was broadened to
include commerce with Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and England, the
great seafaring trade and colonial powers of the age. Concurrently, Japan
was in the final throes of a period of civil wars, and the Japanese were
quick to acquire and exploit Western weapons and other new technology for
internal purposes. Jesuit missionaries, who arrived with the Portuguese
traders, were active printers.
[1]
Besides religious materials, they also published Japanese dictionaries,
grammars, and textbooks for use in church schools and helped the Japanese
add European scripts to their printing capability. Some Japanese traveled
to Europe in this era. There was even a noteworthy mission to the Vatican.
[2]
In 1603, after unifying the country, the Tokugawa family established a
government headed by the shogun (military ruler). Four decades
later, to consolidate power further, the shogun banned Christianity,
prohibited virtually all foreign trade and contact, and closed Japan to
the outside world. The nation then entered a period of isolation and
relative domestic tranquility, which was to last for 200 years.
Education was very important for the warrior samurai, the most powerful
class in Japanese feudal society. The samurai functioned as government
administrators during this period. The curriculum for the samurai was
based on both military and literary studies The literature was primarily
Confucian classics, large portions of which were memorized and recited.
Study of the martial arts consisted of swordsmanship and military tactics.
Commoner education was generally more practically oriented. It centered
around providing basic training in reading, writing, and arithmetic,
emphasizing the use of the abacus and calligraphy. Much of this education
was conducted in so-called temple schools (terakoya). It is
estimated that by the end of the Tokugawa period there may have been more
than 14,000 such schools in Japan.
[3]
They were often one-room private schools, usually with one teacher and a
group of students of mixed ages and abilities. Teaching techniques
included reading from various textbooks, as well as memorizing and
repeatedly copying Chinese characters and Japanese script.
From the 1790's on, Japan began once again to have contacts with other
nations and felt renewed foreign pressures to open the doors to the
outside world. By 1853, when Commodore Matthew Perry arrived requesting
that Japan establish formal diplomatic and trade relations with the United
States, Japan was neither ignorant of world affairs nor inexperienced in
dealing with other nations.
At the start of the Tokugawa period, reading and writing were largely
the province of the priesthood and the nobility. Most of the population
was illiterate. By the end of the era, however, there had been such a
dramatic growth in education that the level of schooling and literacy
compared favorably with that of England and France.
[4]According to the best estimates, by the end of
the Tokugawa period almost all of the children of the court nobility and the
governing samurai had some school experience, and probably 40 to 50 percent of
commoner boys and 10 to 15 percent of girls of school age received some
schooling.[5]
Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this foundation would facilitate
Japan's rapid transition from feudal country to modern nation within a
relatively short span of time.
Meiji period (1868-1912) to World War II
In 1868, after a decade of bitter internal discord, the Tokugawa
government was overturned by a loose alliance of internal opponents who
restored political power to the Emperor. The new leadership rapidly set
Japan on a modernization course. They began to study not only the nature
of Western society, but Western education methods as well.
The Meiji leaders realized from the outset that education had a major
role to play in nation building and modernization. The government
consciously set out to create a public education system that would help
Japan catch up to the West. Missions were sent abroad to study the
education systems of leading Western countries. In due course, Western
advisors were invited to Japan to help devise new approaches for Japanese
education.
While the new system built atop the education base laid down in the
Tokugawa period, it was quite different from the old. Public schooling was
systematically introduced throughout the country. It was open to girls as
well as boys and to lower as well as upper classes. The new system
endeavored to tap all the nation's human resources in support of national
objectives.
Ronald Anderson briefly summarizes the resulting evolution to World War
II:
The Meiji leaders...borrowed
selectively from the West, leaning primarily on the United States as a
model for the initial modern school system. After almost a decade of
American influence, however, Confucian sources were once again consulted
for educational guidance and Germany was found to be a model more
congenial to their own traditions and goals. They codified a nationalist
educational philosophy in 1890 in the famed Imperial Rescript on
Education, which was the basis for Japan's ideology until 1945. The
Imperial Rescript stressed Confucian precepts, particularly those
concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the
state, and the pursuit of learning and morality. Besides the exposure to
an egalitarian American influence in the first decade of the Meiji period,
Japan experienced a second transmission of democratic American educational
influence in the so-called "liberal 1920's" when the philosophy
of John Dewey and the progressive education movements became popular.
Though widely accepted at normal schools and the elementary level, this
approach was suppressed by the militarists when they rose to power in the
late 1930's. During World War II, education was characterized by
authoritarianism, indoctrination, and thought control.
[6]
By the end of the war Japanese education was devastated. Students were
not attending school with any regularity, if at all, and many school
buildings had been destroyed. With defeat came the bankruptcy of much of
prewar thought. A new wave of foreign ideas was introduced during the
postwar military occupation period.
Postwar era
Occupation policymakers were determined to democratize Japan. The
United States Education Mission, which arrived in 1946, believed that a
complete reform of Japanese education was necessary to help achieve this
objective. The Mission made a number of recommendations for major changes
in the Japanese education system along American lines. Some of the
resulting changes included the institution of the 6-3-3 grade structure;
the revision of curriculum and textbooks, including the abolition of moral
education courses (which had become highly nationalistic in the decade
leading to the war); reforms in the writing system; the establishment of
coeducation; the introduction of university-based teacher education; and
support for equal access to higher education. There was also an attempt to
transform the centralized prewar system into a decentralized system based
on the American model with elected local school boards.
After the restoration of full national sovereignty in 1952, Japan
immediately began to modify some of the education changes introduced
during the Occupation period. These modifications more clearly reflected
Japanese ideas about education and educational structure. The Ministry of
Education regained a great deal of power. School boards reverted to being
appointed, rather than elected. A moral education course was reinstituted
in modified form, despite substantial initial concern that it would lead
to a reintroduction of prewar nationalism into the schools.
By the 1960's, postwar recovery and accelerating economic growth
brought increased demands on the education system. In addition, there were
strong disagreements between the government and the teachers' union. This
was also a period of great turbulence in higher education. All this fueled
confrontation and debate about education reform. Some aspects of Japan's
current reform movement can be traced back to the late 1960's.
The Japanese education system has grown rapidly since 1960. According
to Morikazu Ushiogi, from 1960 to 1982 the proportion of the high school
age group enrolled in high schools increased from about 58 percent to 94
percent, while the proportion of those of college age enrolled in higher
education institutions increased from about 10 percent to 36 percent.
[7]
Today's system still reflects the long-standing cultural and
philosophical ideas that learning and education are esteemed and are to be
pursued seriously, and that moral and character development remain
intimately related to education. A meritocratic legacy stemming from the
Meiji period endures, as does a centralized education infrastructure and
an orientation toward viewing education in the service of national
development as well as of personal benefit. The interest remains in
investigating alternative education models abroad, as does a continuing
capability to adapt foreign ideas and methods to Japanese traditions.
Some Cultural Foundations
Japanese education is a powerful instrument of cultural continuity and
national policy. The explicit and implicit content of the school
curriculum and the manner in which teaching and learning are accomplished
impart the attitudes, knowledge, sensitivities, and skills expected of
emerging citizens of Japanese society. These lessons are further
reinforced in the context of family and society.
Linguistically, racially, and ethnically, Japan is a comparatively
homogeneous nation with a strong sense of cultural identity and national
unity. But Japanese society is not monolithic, and there is considerable
individuality. There are also finely calibrated distinctions in status
based on age, gender, employment, and social and educational background.
Despite these differences, however, the Japanese prefer to define
themselves in a manner which emphasizes their core of commonly held
beliefs and values. While popular culture and lifestyles have undergone
some dramatic changes since World War II, there remains a high degree of
public consensus regarding societal values, appropriate standards of
behavior, and the importance and goals of education.
Importance and purposes of education
The origins of the Japanese commitment to education lie in the
Confucian and Buddhist heritage in which great respect is accorded
learning and educational endeavor as means to personal and societal
improvement. Today, there is a clear consensus that education is
essential for both individual and national development and that it
requires active, sustained commitment of energy and resources at all
levels of society. Parents and children take education seriously because
success in school is a crucial determinant of economic and social status
in adult life. Government policymakers and business leaders view the
content and quality of public education as central to national cohesion,
economic development, and international relations.
To the Japanese, education has always had important goals in addition
to acquisition of academic knowledge, intellectual growth, or vocational
skills. Moral education and character development are also among the
central concerns. There is a strong consensus that schools have the
obligation and authority to impart fundamental Japanese values as the
foundation of proper moral attitudes and personal habits.
Respect for society and the established order, prizing group goals
above individual interests, diligence, self-criticism, and
well-organized and disciplined study and work habits are all traits,
which are believed to be amenable to instruction. The child's learning
experiences at each level from preschool through 12th grade reinforce
their acquisition. Japanese teachers believe that the proper development
of these values, attitudes, and habits is fundamental to success in the
classroom as well as in adult life.
Harmonious relations and central role of the
group
Japanese society places a high value on harmony in interpersonal
relations and the ability to cooperate with others. The Japanese believe
that being a member of a well-organized and tightly knit group that
works hard toward common goals is a natural and pleasurable human
experience. Schools reflect this cultural priority. Classroom activities
are structured to encourage or require participation in group
activities, to emphasize the responsibility of individual students to
the class as a group and the school as a whole, and to develop group
loyalty.
Particularly in elementary school, classes are organized into small
groups, which are the basic units of instruction, discipline, and other
activities. Teachers attempt to foster group cohesion and a strong group
spirit by avoiding overt recognition of differences in individual
ability and minimizing one-against-one competition. Daily life in a
Japanese classroom requires considerable mutual assistance and
adaptation of individual views and interests to group goals and
standards of behavior. The heavy emphasis on group activities and social
consensus results in considerable conformity in behavior. There is a
strong tradition of viewing conformity and group orientation as
demonstrations of moral character.
To most Westerners, a high degree of behavioral conformity is
typically associated with top-down control. However, Japanese teachers
are not typically authoritarian nor is harshness a characteristic of
classroom life in Japan. Instead, the cultural emphasis on harmony and
hard work requires that each individual within the system be a willing
contributor to the group effort. Group leadership, Japanese style,
orchestrates the members’ motivations and expectations so that order
and discipline, both in the classroom and the larger society, are
natural outgrowths of achieving a high degree of individual
identification with group goals.
Hard work, diligence, and perseverance
The Japanese believe that hard work, diligence, and perseverance
yield success in education as well as in other aspects of life. A
certain amount of difficulty and hardship is believed to strengthen
students' character and their resolve to do their best in learning and
other important endeavors.
The amount of time and effort spent in study are believed to be more
important than intelligence in determining educational outcomes. Most
Japanese parents and educators are unshakably optimistic that virtually
all children have the potential to master the challenging academic
curriculum, provided they work hard and long enough. Some teachers and
students are less sanguine. The educational results achieved by most
Japanese students in international comparisons provide considerable
support for the beliefs and expectations of the majority, particularly
in light of the fact that there is no credible evidence that Japanese
children have a higher level of native intelligence than, for example,
American children.
A recent comparative study by Robert Hess and others provides
interesting confirmation of the Japanese belief in the efficacy of
effort:
In Japan, poor performance
in mathematics was attributed to lack of effort; in the United States,
explanations were more evenly divided among ability, effort, and
training at school. Japanese mothers were less likely to blame training
at school as a cause of low achievement in mathematics...Their children
generally shared this view of things.
[8]
Parents and teachers encourage regular study habits from the 1st
grade on. A careful, reflective approach which achieves accuracy and
precision rather than speed or intuitive insight is emphasized,
particularly during the early years. Repetition and memorization
continue to be important in the learning process, particularly in
preparation for the arduous and important high school and college
entrance examinations.
Motivation
The cultural emphasis on student effort and diligence is balanced by
a recognition of the important responsibility borne by teachers,
parents, and schools to "awaken the desire to try." Japanese
teachers do not believe that motivation is primarily a matter of luck,
family background, or personality traits. They believe that the desire
to learn--like character itself--is something which can be shaped by
teachers and influenced through the school environment. Students are
unceasingly taught and urged to "do their best," in groups and
as individuals.
A major method of motivating students is the encouragement of group
activities, which are believed to be more enjoyable for students than
solitary endeavor. Motivation through group activity is accomplished by
promoting a strong sense of shared identity and by allowing individuals
opportunity to influence group goals and activities. Wearing school
uniforms, rotating student monitors, and planning and staging class and
school activities all contribute to the process.
Particularly at the secondary level, entrance examinations provide
special motivation for study. Students know that their scores on high
school and university entrance examinations will strongly influence
their future life path. Parents reinforce this concern by urging their
children to study hard, by providing a home environment conducive to
study, and by financing extra lessons and tutorial assistance.
Legacy
Japanese history and cultural values permeate Japanese education. The
heritage is reflected in the national consensus on the importance of
education, its role in character development, and the willingness of
both parents and children to sustain effort and sacrifice year after
year to achieve success in school. It helps form the invisible
foundation of the contemporary education system.
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